Wildlife Trade Research Articles

Evaluating key evidence and formulating regulatory alternatives regarding the UK's Hunting Trophies (Import Prohibition) Bill

AbstractPublic policy addressing biodiversity loss is most likely to be effective when it is informed by appropriate evidence and considers potential unintended consequences. We evaluate key evidence relating to the Hunting Trophies (Import Prohibition) Bill that was discussed in the UK Parliament between 2022 and 2024. We characterize the UK's role in international hunting trophy trade by analyzing CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) trade data for 2000–2021 and 2015–2021. For CITES‐listed species imported to/exported from the UK as hunting trophies in these periods we use data from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species to determine whether hunting designated as “trophy hunting” is (i) likely a major threat contributing to species being of elevated conservation concern, (ii) likely or possibly causing localized declines, or (iii) not a threat. We then use the Red List to determine whether such hunting provides, or potentially provides, benefits for species and/or people. Finally, we evaluate the UK Government's impact assessment of the bill. In 2000–2021 an estimated 3494 hunting trophies from 73 CITES‐listed species and subspecies were exported to the UK involving an estimated 2549 whole organism equivalents (WOEs), that is, individual animals. Imports involved 158.86 ± 66.53 (mean ± SD) trophies/year (115.83 ± 32.27 WOEs/year). In 2015–2021, 79% of imports were from countries where populations of the hunted species are stable, increasing, or abundant. Legal hunting for trophies is not a major threat to any of the species or subspecies imported to the UK, but likely or possibly represents a local threat to some populations of eight species. This hunting does, or could potentially, benefit 20 species and subspecies, and people. Among other concerns, the impact assessment failed to adequately consider the costs and benefits to local communities in countries where such hunting occurs. Informed by these analyses we discuss alternative regulatory options.

The Pangolin Universal Notching System: a scale-marking methodology for pangolins

Abstract Despite thousands of individuals entering the illegal wildlife trade each year, assessments of pangolin populations are largely non-existent, even in areas with high exploitation and limited personnel and field equipment. Although pangolins have unique keratin-based scales, there is no universal scale-marking method for individuals despite some pangolin conservation programmes utilizing marking for reference and cataloguing. Each programme currently establishes and manages its own system, resulting in inconsistencies and limiting data sharing. To facilitate pangolin monitoring and research, we developed a standardized method for assigning individual identification numbers, which we call the Pangolin Universal Notching System. This system is neither resource nor training intensive, which could facilitate its adoption and implementation globally. Its application could help to address knowledge gaps in pangolin ageing, reproduction, survivorship, migration and local trafficking patterns, and could be used in combination with other tagging techniques for research on pangolin biology.

Assessing the legal, illegal, and gray ornamental trade of the critically endangered helmeted hornbill.

Monitoring wildlife trade dynamics is an important initial step for conservation action and demand reduction campaigns to reduce illegal wildlife trade. Studies often rely on one data source to assess a species' trade, such as seizures or the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) trade data. Each database provides useful information but is often incomplete. Combining information from multiple sources helps provide a more complete understanding of trade. A recent rapid increase in demand for helmeted hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil) casques (a brightly colored, solid keratinous rostrum) led to its uplisting to critically endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List in 2015. However, there is little current information on what factors influence trade trends and what current levels of demand are. We combined data from CITES, seizure records, and previously underused, yet abundant, art and antique auction data to examine the global trade in helmeted hornbill casque products (HHPs). Three decades of auction data revealed that 1027 individual HHPs had been auctioned since 1992; total auction sales were over US$3 million from 1992 to 2021. The number of HHPs auctioned was greatest from 2011 to 2014, just after the global art boom (2009-2011), followed by a decline in volume and price. The auction data also revealed 2 possible markets for HHPs: true antique and speculative, defined by era, price, and trade patterns. Trends in illegal trade matched those of the auction market, but legal trade remained consistently low. Combining data sources from legal, illegal, and gray markets provided an overview of the dynamics of illegal trade in an endangered species. This approach can be applied to other wildlife markets to provide a more complete understanding of trade and demand at the market level to inform future demand reduction campaigns.

Quantifying species biases among multidata sources on illegal wildlife trade and its implications for conservation.

Unsustainable wildlife consumption and illegal wildlife trade (IWT) threaten biodiversity worldwide. Although publicly accessible data sets are increasingly used to generate insights into IWT, little is known about their potential bias. We compared three typical and temporally corresponding data sets (4204 court verdicts, 926 seizure news reports, and 219 bird market surveys) on traded birds native to China and evaluated their possible species biases. Specifically, we evaluated bias and completeness of sampling for species richness, phylogeny, conservation status, spatial distribution, and life-history characteristics among the three data sets when determining patterns of illegal trade. Court verdicts contained the largest species richness. In bird market surveys and seizure news reports, phylogenetic clustering was greater than that in court verdicts, where songbird species (i.e., Passeriformes) were detected in higher proportions in market surveys. The seizure news data set contained the highest proportion of species of high conservation priority but the lowest species coverage. Across the country, all data sets consistently reported relatively high species richness in south and southwest regions, but markets revealed a northern geographic bias. The species composition in court verdicts and markets also exhibited distinct geographical patterns. There was significant ecological trait bias when we modeled whether a bird species is traded in the market. Our regression model suggested that species with small body masses, large geographical ranges, and a preference for anthropogenic habitats and those that are not nationally protected were more likely to be traded illegally. The species biases we found emphasize the need to know the constraints of each data set so that they can optimally inform strategies to combat IWT.

The need for a socioecological harm reduction approach to reduce illegal wildlife trade.

The burgeoning illegal trade in succulents in southern Africa presents a critical conservation and social development challenge. Drawing parallels with the trajectory of the response to rhinoceros poaching, we considered the consequences of conservation law enforcement measures, particularly the militarization of antipoaching efforts. The response to rhinoceros poaching not only resulted in so-called green militarization, but also led to extrajudicial killings, human rights abuses, and the disproportionate targeting of low-level poachers. The nature of wildlife trade prohibition is complex and often contested, and many actors operating in illegal wildlife trades dispute the label of illegal for socioeconomic, cultural, historical, or political reasons. This contestation is crucial when considering Indigenous cultural and medicinal values of succulents, with Indigenous Peoples and local communities questioning the criminalization of traditional plant harvesting practices. As the illegal trade in succulents continues to grow, it is imperative for conservationists to consider a nuanced approach. We call for a socioecological harm reduction approach that emphasizes community engagement, sustainable use, and codesigned interventions. Such an approach could help balance the scales of ecological conservation and human dignity in the face of growing wildlife trade challenges.

Scale of unregulated international trade in Australian reptiles and amphibians.

Reptiles and amphibians are popular in the exotic pet trade, where Australian species are valued for their rarity and uniqueness. Despite a near-complete ban on the export of Australian wildlife, smuggling and subsequent international trade frequently occur in an unregulated and unmonitored manner. In 2022, Australia listed over 100 squamates in Appendix III of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) to better monitor this trade. We investigated current trade and assessed the value of this Australian CITES listing using web-scraping methods to monitor the online pet trade in Australian reptiles and amphibians, with additional data from published papers, trade databases, and seizure records. Despite the export ban, we identified 170 endemic herpetofauna (reptile and amphibian) species in international trade, 33 of which were not recorded previously in the international market, including 6 newly recorded genera. Ninety-two traded species were included in CITES appendices (59 added in 2022), but at least 78 other traded species remained unregulated. Among these, 5 of the 10 traded threatened species were unlisted, and we recommend they be considered for inclusion in CITES Appendix III. We also recommend the listing of all Diplodactylidae genera in Appendix III. Despite this family representing the greatest number of Australian species in trade, only one genus (of 7 traded) was included in the recent CITES amendments. Overall, a large number of Australian reptile and amphibian species are traded internationally and, although we acknowledge the value of Australia's recent CITES listing, we recommend the consideration of other taxa for similar inclusion in CITES.

Determining the legality of newly described CITES-listed species in the horticulture trade of tropical pitcher plants (Nepenthes).

Due diligence is a fundamental component of ensuring a sustainable and legal wildlife trade that is also supportive of the livelihoods and businesses that depend on the trade. This is particularly true with species listed on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) that are considered threatened or may become threatened by trade. Undertaking due diligence exercises requires access to information on which to base such decisions; however, the extent to which information is available is unclear. We used the trade in tropical pitcher plants (Nepenthes) for horticultural purposes as a case study to determine the extent to which information is available. A systematic survey of online trade was conducted for species described from 1996 to 2016. For the species found in trade, these were cross-referenced with the CITES trade database, and inquiries were made to the relevant CITES Management Authorities and National Focal Points Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS). Of 83 newly described species, 61% were offered for sale online in 2018. Despite all Nepenthes species being listed on CITES, only 23% (n=19) of the species being sold online were reported in trade on the CITES Trade Database, and only 3 were from the countries of origin. Thirty-two of these species had no international trade recorded according to the database. Management authorities of CITES for the countries of origin confirmed trade had been permitted for 5 of 32 species. Lack of CITES records may be explained by trade under "Nepenthes spp." or as exempt parts and derivatives. However, permits to collect and commercialize are likely to be required as part of the Nagoya Protocol on ABS from the Convention on Biological Diversity. The ABS National Focal Points were contacted to determine whether collection or commercialization permits had been issued for the remaining species. Only 2 of 7 focal points replied, and both stated no permits had been issued. Lack of traceability information or response related to the issuance of collection and commercialization permits is concerning and hinders the due diligence of businesses and consumers wanting to ensure their trade is legal, sustainable, and ethical.

A practical approach to meeting national obligations for sustainable trade under CITES.

Reconciling conservation goals with sustainable resource use requires adaptive management strategies. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulates global trade for species listed on Appendix II, partly by requiring member countries (parties) to ensure exports do not damage wild populations (called making positive "nondetriment findings" [NDFs]). Unfortunately, when parties find NDFs difficult, they often suspend legal trade, imposing economic costs and driving trade underground. To make it easier for parties to examine the detrimental nature of exports, we devised a spatial approach and applied it to seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) in Tamil Nadu, India, as an example. Our approach involves mapping answers to 5 key questions on species distribution (QA), pressures (QB), management measures (QC), management implementation (QD), and species' population status (QE). We gathered data from fisher interviews and published literature. Seahorse abundance was greatest in southern Palk Bay and the northern Gulf of Mannar, primarily in seagrasses and coral reefs (QA). Fishing pressure was highest in Palk Bay, primarily from bottom trawlers and dragnetters operating in shallow seahorse habitats near the coastline (QB). Management measures including a marine protected area (MPA), bottom trawl exclusion zone, and closed season were theoretically in place (QC), but their implementation was poor (QD). Fishers reported seahorse catches in 85% of the area covered by the MPA and the exclusion zone; bottom trawlers were responsible for most violations. Seahorses were also captured in Sri Lankan waters, where bottom trawling is banned. Fisher reports indicated declining seahorse catches and reduced body sizes (QE), highlighting unsustainable exploitation. Our results highlight the need for better implementation of existing management measures before a positive NDF can be made and suggest mitigation beyond bans. Such pragmatic spatial analyses can help regulate exports at sustainable levels, supporting CITES implementation for its vast range of species.

Challenges of regulating commercial use of marine elapid snakes in the Indo-Pacific.

Marine elapid snakes are a diverse, predominantly Indo-West Pacific species group. The persistent removal of some species has an unquantified but potentially dire impact on populations. We conducted the first comprehensive review of the trade in marine elapid snakes based on published literature (1974-2022) and trade data from the only species (i.e., Hydrophis [Lapemis] curtus) whose trade is monitored internationally. Some species and populations were subjected to targeted harvest for their meat and skins for at least the last century; fisheries are possibly the most significant threat to populations of marine elapids, with the highest numbers being exploited either accidentally, incidentally, or opportunistically in Southeast Asian fisheries targeting other seafood, including demersal trawl and squid fisheries. Southeast Asia is the core region for exploitation of marine elapids. Annual offtake is >225,000 individuals of at least 8 species in the Gulf of Thailand. Of 72 recognized marine elapids (all non-CITES [Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora] species), Hydrophis curtus and Hydrophis cyanocinctus dominate the skin trade. Skins of H. curtus are traded mainly in East and Southeast Asia and, to some extent, Europe. Despite some baseline information on the trade of these species, the sustainability of their harvests, particularly in the context of the burgeoning and unmanaged nature of fisheries in the region, remains the major challenge. In an era of declining fish stocks, there has been an increasing trend to commercialize the harvest and use marine elapids that were once considered accidental bycatch and discarded. This trend will continue to pose a significant risk to these snakes unless appropriate fisheries and trade regulations are enforced. Applying the precautionary principle to prevent the overexploitation of sea snakes is an indispensable measure in which trade in regional populations should be regulated through CITES. Accordingly, management plans to identify core distribution regions of exploited species would be crucial for assigning national responsibilities to sustain species and populations in the long term.

International wildlife trade quotas are characterized by high compliance and coverage but insufficient adaptive management

AbstractEffective management of international wildlife trade is crucial to ensure sustainability. Quotas are a common trade management tool and specify an annual number of individuals to be exported, yet at present there is no global assessment of quota coverage and compliance. Using over 7,000 country–year specific reptile quotas established under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) covering 343 species, we quantify quota coverage, compliance, trade trends pre-quota and post-quota setting and whether quotas likely represent adaptive management. Quotas predominantly concerned live wild-sourced reptiles, with only 6.6% of live non-zero quotas exceeded and 4.5% of zero quotas subverted. For 62.3% of species, quotas were established higher than pre-quota trade, with traded volumes post-quota mainly unchanged or higher than pre-quota establishment, thus potentially facilitating sustainable trade. Over 38% of quota series of species remained at the same level each year, with the longest-running quotas proportionately updated the least, indicating that many quotas do not change adaptively in response to changing threats to species through time. Greater specificity in exactly what quotas cover, justification for unchanged quotas and transparency over quota determination are needed to ensure that high compliance equates to sustainable use.

Creating a more inclusive approach to wildlife trade management.

Global wildlife trade involves a diverse array of species. Although sustainable trade underpins livelihoods for communities worldwide, unsustainable trade, whether legal or illegal, threatens thousands of species and can lead to extinctions. From plants and fungi to fish, amphibians, mammals, invertebrates, and reptiles, a diverse array of species across taxa are affected by trade. Attention to wildlife trade has increased in recent years, but its focus has largely remained on a narrow range of high-profile species, with taxa deemed less charismatic frequently overlooked, despite some having significant trade volumes and levels of threat to wild populations. These biases can hamper effective policy interventions, reduce awareness of wider threats from trade, and prevent conservation efforts from focusing on the most pressing issues. It is important to broaden the scope of research and policy discussions and create a more inclusive approach to trade management. The diversity of approaches to wildlife trade can be improved by expanding monitoring of trade to a wider variety of taxa; collecting fundamental ecological data to underpin assessments of trade sustainability; improving and codesigning conservation interventions with key stakeholders and trade actors; and developing appropriate strategies for managing the supply, trade, and demand in diverse wildlife products to ensure species and livelihoods are protected.

Financial speculation meets cultural heritage in China's wildlife markets.

Environmental regulations restricting the use of a natural resource or species often have unintended consequences. One example is prohibitions on the international trade in culturally important endangered wildlife. Trade restrictions may artificially increase scarcity and, consequently, value. In China, international trade restrictions may trigger bouts of speculative investment that have the opposite effect of the restrictions' intent. We examined how China's speculative economy and cultural history have together led to unintended consequences when regulating wildlife trade. In China, wildlife markets occupy a legal gray area that can make regulations ineffectual or even counterproductive. In extreme cases, prohibiting trade can provoke market booms. Further unintended consequences include potential cultural backlash. In China and across the Global South, international trade restrictions are sometimes considered a continuation of a longstanding history of Western intervention and thus may not be enforced as strongly or may generate resentment. This pushback has contributed to rising calls to decolonialize conservation and may lead to growing alliances between China and other Global South countries when negotiating international wildlife trade restrictions in the future.

Navigating ethical challenges in online wildlife trade research.

The surge in internet accessibility has transformed wildlife trade by facilitating the acquisition of wildlife through online platforms. This scenario presents unique ethical challenges for researchers, as traditional ethical frameworks for in-person research cannot be readily applied to the online realm. Currently, there is a lack of clearly defined guidelines for appropriate ethical procedures when conducting online wildlife trade (OWT) research. In response to this, we consulted the scientific literature on ethical considerations in online research and examined existing guidelines established by professional societies and ethical boards. Based on these documents, we present a set of recommendations that can inform the development of ethically responsible OWT research. Key ethical challenges in designing and executing OWT research include the violation of privacy rights, defining subjects and illegality, and the risk of misinterpretation or posing risks to participants when sharing data. Potential solutions include considering participants' expectations of privacy, defining when participants are authors versus subjects, understanding the legal and cultural context, minimizing data collection, ensuring anonymization, and removing metadata. Best practices also involve being culturally sensitive when analyzing and reporting findings. Adhering to these guidelines can help mitigate potential pitfalls and provides valuable insights to editors, researchers, and ethical review boards, enabling them to conduct scientifically rigorous and ethically responsible OWT research to advance this growing field.

Assessing the risk of overexploitation to a tarantula species in the pet trade.

The global pet trade in invertebrates remains poorly understood and underrepresented in policy and research. Tarantulas are a highly traded invertebrate group. Many individuals in trade are wild caught, and trade regulation is often lacking, raising concerns about the effect of trade on local ecosystems and populations. We addressed local concerns surrounding the international trade of Tapinauchenius rasti (Caribbean diamond tarantula), which is endemic to Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. We assessed the extinction risks associated with this widely traded species by analyzing supply of and demand for the species with the COM-B (capability, opportunity, motivation, behavior) model. This model breaks down decision-making into capability, opportunity, and motivation. We interviewed stakeholders throughout the supply chain and analyzed content of an online hobbyist forum and a time series of prices for this species and other tarantulas. In terms of motivation, there was limited preference for the Caribbean diamond tarantula due to its morphology and behavior. In terms of opportunity, the species was readily available, primarily through captive breeding. Collecting wild specimens is challenging due to enforcement measures and logistical difficulties, making it an unprofitable endeavor. In terms of capability, the species was relatively low in price, likely because it is easy to breed in captivity. As a result, the current wildlife trade does not pose a significant threat to the Caribbean diamond tarantula. Our methodology can serve as a valuable tool for assessing potential threats posed by trade to other spider species and possibly other invertebrates. Understanding these threats is crucial for promoting responsible and sustainable trade practices that minimize risks to wild populations while ensuring equitable benefits for communities coexisting with wildlife.

A call to include fungi in wildlife trade research and policy.

A call to include fungi in wildlife trade research and policy.

Use of consumer insights to inform behavior change interventions aimed at illegal pet turtle trade in China.

Illegal poaching and overexploitation for the international pet trade are among the greatest threats to freshwater turtles in Southeast Asia. Expanding consumer research in China is crucial to filling knowledge gaps about the scale and structure of illegal trade and developing audience-targeted and relevant interventions that may reduce demand for illegal turtles as pets. We applied mixed methods to provide a detailed understanding of the consumer side of the illegal pet turtle trade in China. We conducted 30 interviews with key stakeholders and online surveys (n=2456) of turtle keepers via community forums. From these, we identified 3 core consumer groups based on their prior turtle-keeping experience, species exposure, and potential for future purchases. We conducted a thematic qualitative analysis of concepts related to the capability, opportunity, motivation, and behavior (COM-B) model to determine the factors influencing the illegal pet turtle trade and to identify barriers to illegal purchases. Specifically, we identified purchasers' capabilities, opportunities, and motivations in the context of legality, enforcement risk, captive breeding, and impacts on wild population. We developed consumer journey maps (i.e., visual representations of customer's experiences throughout their buying journey) for core consumer groups. These maps illustrate the sequential behaviors and processes that consumers undertake when purchasing turtles, from initial exposure to sourcing, keeping, and providing a new home. Key factors influencing illegal purchases included convenient purchase channels, misguided cognition and motivations for pet keeping, and weak law enforcement. Effective interventions included messages focusing on shifting cognition and beliefs, increasing legal risk perception, and emphasizing stringent law enforcement, primarily delivered through online channels. Our results underscore the necessity for adaptable, audience-tailored interventions to reduce consumer demand for illegal wildlife products. The mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative and qualitative data, provided a comprehensive understanding of the target behavior and can inform the development of effective intervention strategies.

Monitoring change: A Behavior‐Centered Theory of Change for effective demand reduction interventions

AbstractBehavior change campaigns are crucial in combatting illegal wildlife trade (IWT) by reducing demand, but assessing their impact requires robust strategies. The Behavior‐Centered Theory of Change (BC‐ToC) integrates Theory of Change frameworks with decision‐making models to design and evaluate interventions using behavioral and progress indicators. We used BC‐ToC to design two behavioral change interventions aimed at reducing demand for two threatened Venezuelan bird species: the Yellow‐shouldered Amazon (YSA) and the Red Siskin (RS). We developed workshops to engage community organizations and conservationists to identify audience groups, evaluate alternative behaviors considering impact and benefits, and define behavior‐based indicators for monitoring change. For YSA, two audience groups with similar demand motivations emerged: “common folks” (women, 20–70 yo, low education) and “young professionals” (20–30 yo, educated). Enjoying parrots through outdoor activities emerged as an alternative. For RS, the main audience segments were the breeder groups “South American node” (Venezuelan and Brazilian) and “Iberian node” (Spaniels and Portuguese). Iberian with wider age range (30–60 yo) and greater education than South American. Adopting responsible sourcing practices surfaced as the alternative behavior. We described behavioral levers, intermediary outputs, and indicators reflecting changes in knowledge, attitudes, norms, and control. We discussed challenges for adoption, emphasizing systemic barriers and the role of regulations, and provided ground‐tailored strategies for effective behavioral interventions.

The effectiveness of interventions to manage international wildlife trade

AbstractA range of interventions have been established to manage international wildlife trade and protect traded species; however, there is little consensus as to whether, when, and how they are effective. Here, through a comprehensive, systematic review of >8000 articles, we appraise the evidence for the effectiveness of interventions on conservation, biological, and/or socio‐economic outcomes. Our systematic review examined four intervention types: “laws and regulations”, “detection and enforcement”, “efforts to reduce threats to species”, and “support local livelihoods”. We find that while laws and regulations were most well‐studied, with some reported positive outcomes, over half of articles reported unintended consequences including shifting exploitation and trade routes, increased illegal trade, and socio‐economic trade‐offs. Detection and enforcement efforts appeared effective in protecting target species but limited for high‐value species especially when combined with low reproductive rates. Efforts to reduce threats to species (particularly through area protection) had positive biological impacts, but some socio‐economic trade‐offs were reported. Evidence on community‐based approaches was limited but our review indicated positive synergies occurring between conservation and socio‐economic outcomes. Overall, socio‐economic outcomes were underrepresented, limiting understanding of potentially important socio‐ecological feedbacks. This review furthers understanding of relevant conditions, risks and enabling factors around effectiveness of wildlife trade interventions.

USE OF THE ZOOLOGICAL INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (ZIMS) DATABASE (2003-2023) FOR EVALUATION OF PRACTITIONER-SELECTED MELOXICAM DOSES AND THE RELATIONSHIP TO AVIAN TAXONOMY.

Meloxicam, a commonly used NSAID, has wide variation in pharmacokinetics between different avian species. The present study hypothesized that meloxicam dosage regimens were similar within, but differ between, groups of avian species with similar feeding habits, habitats, or migratory behaviors. Utilizing the international Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS), drug usage extracts were compiled for meloxicam across eleven major orders of birds. The orders were selected based on their prevalence in zoological collections, wildlife rehabilitation centers, the pet trade, and production environments. Each species with a record available in drug usage extracts was classified into broad categories of main habitat, diet, and migratory status. Significant patterns associated with habitat, diet, or migratory status were not identified statistically. An inverse relationship was identified statistically between the practitioner mg/kg dose and body weight in kg in birds that weigh approximately 20 kg or greater. This study includes practitioner-reported summary data of current doses used in the veterinary field to treat many different avian species. Adverse effects of meloxicam were recorded in <5% of individuals evaluated at the species level in this study.

Approaches to tracing the geographic origin of wildlife trade.

Approaches to tracing the geographic origin of wildlife trade.