Illegal Poisoning Research Articles

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Related to Leptospirosis among Urban Slum Residents in Brazil

Leptospirosis disproportionately affects residents of urban slums. To understand the knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding leptospirosis, we conducted a cross-sectional study among residents of an urban slum community in Salvador, Brazil. Of the 257 residents who were interviewed, 225 (90%) were aware of leptospirosis and more than two-thirds of respondents correctly identified the modes of disease transmission and ways to reduce exposure. However, study participants who performed risk activities such as cleaning open sewers had limited access to protective clothing such as boots (33%) or gloves (35%). Almost all respondents performed at least one activity to prevent household rat infestation, which often included use of an illegal poison. Our findings support the need for interventions targeted at the individual and household levels to reduce risk of leptospirosis until large-scale structural interventions are available to residents of urban slum communities.

Baits, Budget Cuts: A Deadly Mix

![Figure][1] Bearded vulture with GPS transmitter.CREDIT: JORDI BAS The illegal use of poison baits is the most important non-natural factor in the the extinction of several European vertebrate megafauna over the previous two centuries. Yet the practice continues unabated today. Poison baits represent a serious threat to public health and a serious conservation problem for sustaining biodiversity at both European and global scales ([ 1 ][2]). Spain is home to important populations of several threatened vertebrate species. More than 8000 cases of illegal poisoning were reported in the period between 1990 and 2010, with victims including 53 bearded vultures ( Gypaetus barbatus ), 366 Egyptian vultures ( Neophron percnopterus ), 759 cinereous vultures ( Aegypius monachus ), 117 Spanish imperial eagles ( Aquila adalberti ), 2877 Eurasian griffon vultures ( Gyps fulvus ), 1981 red kites ( Milvus milvus ), 961 black kites ( Milvus migrans ), and 9 brown bears ( Ursus arctos ) ([ 2 ][3]–[ 5 ][4]). Several of these species are classified as endangered within the European Union (there remain only 170 pairs of bearded vultures, 323 Spanish imperial eagles, 1889 cinereous vultures, and 1900 Egyptian vultures). Moreover, Spain is home to more than 95% of all European avian scavengers and the world's entire Spanish imperial eagle population. Given this context, the damage to the conservation of European biodiversity caused by poisoning is considerable. In light of the current economic crisis, the Spanish government has cut funding for research and development, and its Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Environment has reduced investment by 31% with respect to 2011. As a result, research and conservation programs that can minimize the impact of illegal poisoning are at risk. Without the funds to monitor threatened species with satellite transmitters, to analyze animal carcasses found through this and other monitoring methods, and to continue with environmental education programs and research trap selectivity methods, illegal poisoning looms even larger. All the human and economic efforts of the past two decades could turn out to be futile and biodiversity be put at risk if research and conservation programs are paralyzed. 1. [↵][5]1. N. Richards , Carbofuran and Wildlife Poisoning: Global Perspectives and Forensic Approaches (Wiley-Blackwell, West Sussex, UK, 2012). 2. [↵][6]1. M. Hernandez, 2. A. Margalida , Ecotoxicology 17, 264 (2008). [OpenUrl][7][CrossRef][8][PubMed][9][Web of Science][10] 3. 1. M. Hernandez, 2. A. Margalida , Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 55, 415 (2009). [OpenUrl][11][CrossRef][12][Web of Science][13] 4. 1. A. Margalida 2. et al ., Bird Conserv. Int. 18, 1 (2008). [OpenUrl][14][Web of Science][15] 5. [↵][16]1. L. M. Gonzalez 2. et al ., Oryx 41, 495 (2007). [OpenUrl][17] [1]: pending:yes [2]: #ref-1 [3]: #ref-2 [4]: #ref-5 [5]: #xref-ref-1-1 View reference 1 in text [6]: #xref-ref-2-1 View reference 2 in text [7]: {openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DEcotoxicology%2B%2528London%252C%2BEngland%2529%26rft.stitle%253DEcotoxicology%26rft.aulast%253DHernandez%26rft.auinit1%253DM.%26rft.volume%253D17%26rft.issue%253D4%26rft.spage%253D264%26rft.epage%253D272%26rft.atitle%253DPesticide%2Babuse%2Bin%2BEurope%253A%2Beffects%2Bon%2Bthe%2BCinereous%2Bvulture%2B%2528Aegypius%2Bmonachus%2529%2Bpopulation%2Bin%2BSpain.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1007%252Fs10646-008-0193-1%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F18274896%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx [8]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/s10646-008-0193-1&link_type=DOI [9]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=18274896&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fsci%2F338%2F6104%2F192.1.atom [10]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=000254402500006&link_type=ISI [11]: {openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DEur.%2BJ.%2BWildl.%2BRes.%26rft.volume%253D55%26rft.spage%253D415%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1007%252Fs10344-009-0255-6%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx [12]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/s10344-009-0255-6&link_type=DOI [13]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=000268309900011&link_type=ISI [14]: {openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DBird%2BConserv.%2BInt.%26rft.volume%253D18%26rft.spage%253D1%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx [15]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=000255100100001&link_type=ISI [16]: #xref-ref-5-1 View reference 5 in text [17]: {openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DOryx%26rft.volume%253D41%26rft.spage%253D495%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx

Understanding the propensity of wild predators to illegal poison baiting

AbstractIn many parts of the world, illegal poisoning of wild predators has increased abruptly in recent decades. Birds of prey and carnivores have been targeted directly or indirectly if these are perceived to impact game species or domestic animals. Non‐target species have experienced widespread declines, even local extinctions, as the result of illegal use of poisoned bait. In this study, we used data on detected poisoning events in the southern Spanish region of Andalusia to measure the influence of extrinsic and intrinsic variables on poisoning propensity of 18 wild predator species. Extrinsic factors affecting a species being poisoned were those related to the predicted coverage of poisoning events and how this overlapped with the distribution range of each species. To achieve this, we mapped areas of high ‘favourability’ of poisoning, as well as areas favourable for the species. Intrinsic factors that could increase a species' chances of consuming poisoned bait were related to how much a species depended on scavenging for food, whether it lived in groups, pairs or solitary, and on its sedentariness (whether migratory or sedentary). For each species, we calculated an index of potential spatial conflict between the distribution of poisoning events and the species' most favourable natural areas. To assess a species' intrinsic likelihood for consuming poisoned bait, we derived an index from the species' feeding habits, its sociality and sedentariness. Finally, by combining the extrinsic and extrinsic indices, we produced a general index of propensity to poisoning. We show that vultures and the red kite (Milvus milvus) among the raptors had the highest propensity of being poisoned, while the Iberian grey wolf (Canis lupus signatus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and Eurasian badger (Meles meles) were more prone among the carnivores. With our method managers can measure vulnerability of species to poisoning and prioritize them in a clear spatial context.

Risk mapping of illegal poisoning of avian and mammalian predators

AbstractWild predators are targeted if they are perceived to affect game species or domestic animals. Over the last century, the direct persecution of birds of prey and mammalian carnivores has led to their widespread decline, even local extirpations. Many such cases involved the illegal use of poisoned bait. We used 1,305 detected poisoning events and 59 biophysical variables to construct a distribution model of illegal poisoning throughout Andalusia, southern Spain. We chose this region because the largest number of poisoning events recorded in Spain were detected in Andalusia during the period 1990–2005. Our results showed greater incidence of poisoning was correlated with areas of high predator richness and high wild rabbit hunting yields. Thus, we hypothesize that wildlife managers should be able to estimate current and potential poisoning areas using frequency of poisoning events data. Managers can then focus control within those areas identified as conflict zones and establish surveillance schemes that prevent the loss of wildlife within the targeted areas. Our results have potential application in strategic planning for conservation of vulnerable high‐profile species such as birds of prey and mammalian carnivores in southern Spain and other regions. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.

Alleviating human–wildlife conflicts: identifying the causes and mapping the risk of illegal poisoning of wild fauna

Summary1. Illegal human behaviour such as those affecting natural resource use or resulting from human–wildlife conflicts threaten the sustainable management of ecosystems and the conservation of biodiversity worldwide. However, the frequently scarce and incomplete data owing to the sensitive nature of illegal activities pose a challenge to developing tools to properly understand and prevent those activities.2. We used species distribution models to identify factors related to a prominent illegal activity, wildlife poisoning, and to produce detailed, spatially explicit maps of the risk of occurrence in NW Spain. We alleviated the constraints of imperfect information and occurrence of absences by using presence‐only methods, that is, maximum entropy modelling (MaxEnt). To our knowledge, this is the first time that this method has been used in the context of illegal activities affecting wildlife.3. A total of 112 poisoning events involving 228 individuals of 25 different species were reported in the study area from 2000 to 2010. Most of the reported deaths (90·8%) were birds of prey (52·6%) and mammalian carnivores (38·2%), of which 95·2% were scavengers. Illegal poisoning affected eleven species classified as endangered at national and/or global level.4. Our models highlighted the perceived risk of livestock predation by wolves Canis lupus, although not by bears Ursus arctos, as a major motivation for poisoning. The existence of protected areas was positively correlated to this illegal practice, while socioeconomic factors had less influence on predicting its occurrence. Over 56% of the study area was predicted to be under risk of illegal poisoning.5. Synthesis and applications. We demonstrate a new use for presence‐only models, illustrated using MaxEnt, to assist conservation managers dealing with illegal activities. This approach allows the main causes of an illegal practice to be identified and generates spatially explicit risk maps. Managers can take advantage of this modelling approach to allocate the scarce resources available in conservation to key sectors and locations. In our study system, actions against illegal poisoning should aim to resolve the potential conflict existing between cattle‐farming and wolves, especially in protected areas.

Long term effects of tetramine poisoning: An observational study

Context. Tetramine is an illegal rat poison that has resulted in a number of accidental mass poisonings in China. Objective. To investigate the long term outcome of tetramine poisoning. Materials and methods. A survey of epileptic attacks in 370 patients in the Hubei province of P. R. China who had survived tetramine poisoning in the last decade was undertaken by means of telephone calls, letters, and interviews. Data describing the initial acute episode was gathered from medical and public health records. Results. Among the 370 patients surveyed (188 males, 182 females, age range 10 to 71 y), 352 experienced seizures during the initial poisoning. One hundred fifty-eight individuals are currently seizure-free, after an average medication period of 2.93 years. The other patients have recurrent epilepsy, including 156 with tonic–clonic seizures and 39 with partial seizures. Six patients have other neurological problems. Discussion and conclusion. Tetramine, a rat poison sometimes ingested by mistake, blocks GABA receptors and causes seizures. These seizures can persist for years after the initial poisoning, even when no seizures are present initially. Sodium valproate, which has the ability to increase the amount of GABA in the CNS, would be a reasonable choice for the treatment of epilepsy caused by tetramine poisoning.

Modelling mortality causes in longitudinal data in the presence of tag loss: application to raptor poisoning and electrocution

Summary1. A first step for the effective management of vulnerable populations is to identify population threats and measure their relative impact on population fluctuations. The relative importance of proximate causes of mortality can be calculated from longitudinal data using capture–mark–recapture models. If marks are lost or cease to function, survival is underestimated.2. We provide an analytical framework based on conditional probabilities to obtain a robust estimate of the contribution of multiple sources of mortality while accounting for tag loss and imperfect detection.3. We applied this approach to radiotracking and wing tags‐resighting data of red kites Milvus milvus to estimate the impact of illegal poisoning and the mortality by electrocution on power lines in the island of Mallorca (Spain).4. Illegal poisoning was responsible for 53% of the total mortality and electrocution on power lines for 12%. Results indicated that poisoning‐related mortality was higher in immature birds, probably due to their more wide‐ranging prospective behaviour.5. Assuming the two human‐related mortalities are additive, the survival probability of kites would increase by 17% (from 0·76 to 0·91) if both threats were removed.6. Synthesis and applications. We present a new approach to estimate the contribution of different sources of mortality accounting for tag loss, state uncertainty and detection failures in wildlife populations. Our results will allow the demographic consequences of human‐related mortality in threatened populations to be refined. The approach is suitable for the study of multiplicative latent processes in a vast range of applied conservation studies such as, for example, wildlife epidemiology.

Incidental poisoning of animals by carbamates in the Czech Republic

Summary Illegal poisoning of wildlife and domestic animals is a worldwide issue. The carbamates primarily used as pesticides are often misused for such a purpose. In this study, 181 birds, mammals and baits were analysed over the period 2004–09 for possible intoxication by carbamates. Intoxication by carbamate carbofuran was diagnosed in 89 cases, and in another 19 cases (nine Wild Boars and 10 Bisons) intoxication with another carbamate – methomyl – was proven. Incidental ingestion of the marten bait was the main cause of intoxication. Although the distribution of carbofuran was prohibited in 2007, no decline in the number of intoxicated animals in the following two years was detected. New cases of intoxication by carbofuran are anticipated in the future until all remaining stock is expended.

Status of the Endangered Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus in the Cantabrian Mountains, Spain, and assessment of threats

AbstractThe Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as well as on the European and Spanish Red Lists. Spain is home to the most important breeding population of Egyptian vultures in Europe but this population has differing trends at a regional scale. We present data for the Egyptian vulture population in the Cantabrian Mountains, north-west Spain, during the last 3 decades and assess the main threats to the species there. The Egyptian vulture population in the Cantabrian Mountains was estimated to be 175 breeding pairs in 2008, which comprised 13–14% of the Spanish population. This population has been stable, or increasing slightly, since 2000. During 2000–2008 4.3% of the Cantabrian Egyptian vulture population was affected by the use of illegal poison. During the same period the number of sheep and goats reared (which contributes to the maintenance of Egyptian vulture territories) was reduced by 27.4%, which could lead to food shortages for the vultures in the near future. Currently 32 breeding pairs (18.3% of the population) have wind turbines within their foraging areas, with an average of 59 wind turbines per territory (range 1–176). During the next few years this number will increase to 110 turbines per territory within 69 vulture territories (39.4% of the population). Nearly a third (32.6%) of breeding territories are located outside protected areas. Better coordination between administrative areas is needed to guarantee the conservation of the Cantabrian Mountains population of Egyptian vultures through effective surveillance and protection in the numerous existing protected areas.

From illegal poison to legal medicine: A qualitative research in a heroin‐prescription trial in Spain*

In recent decades, studies have been made of the possible benefits of treatments using heroin, although qualitative methodologies have not usually been employed. In 2004, in Granada (Spain), a clinical experiment was launched: the Experimental Narcotics Prescription Programme in Andalusia (PEPSA). This project attempted to evaluate the effectiveness of intravenous heroin and orally-administered methadone prescription for long-term socially-excluded opiate addicts for whom other treatments have failed. The research described herein is qualitative and has been carried out within the framework of the aforementioned experiment. The objective was to discover the attitudes, opinions and experiences of patients (and relatives) once they had been included in the program and are receiving heroin in a therapeutic environment. Focused ethnographic procedures were used to establish the study population. During the field work, we carried out in-depth interviews and observations using 21 patients and relatives. Analysis was carried out by a team according to grounded theory. Our results show how the treatment process and the administering of heroin in a therapeutic context manages to break the habit of consuming heroin obtained illegally, thus changing the significance given to the substance and bringing about improvements in aspects such as the workplace, family relations and physical and mental health. The move from 'substance addiction' to chronic 'illness' upon beginning the treatment provides a chance for a population with a long history of rejection and exclusion to become part of society once again.

Testing the goodness of supplementary feeding to enhance population viability in an endangered vulture.

BackgroundHuman-predator conflicts are directly or indirectly threatening many species with extinction. Thus, biologists are urged to find simple solutions to complex situations while avoiding unforeseen conservation outcomes. The provision of supplementary food at artificial feeding sites (AFS) is frequently used in the conservation of scavenger bird populations currently suffering from indirect poisoning, although no scientific studies on its effectiveness have been conducted.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe used a long-term data set of 95 individually marked birds from the largest European core of the endangered bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) to test the long-term effects of specific AFS for bearded vultures on their survival rates (by CMR models) and population dynamics (by Monte Carlo simulations) in an area where fatalities derived from illegal poisoning and the use of other toxics like veterinary drugs have increased over the last several years. Our data support the positive relationship between the use of AFS and survival. However, contrary to theoretical predictions (e.g. high and more stable adult survival among long-lived species), the use of AFS increased only survival of pre-adults. Moreover, AFS buffered the effects of illegal poisoning on this age-class, while adult survival decreased over years. Our simulations predicted a maximum value of extinction probability over a time horizon of 50 years. Population projections run with survival rates expected in scenarios without poisoning predicted the situation of least conservation concern, while including only AFS can maintain a large floater surplus that may delay population decline but fails to reduce poisoning risk among adults.Conclusions/SignificanceAlthough AFS are not effective to save bearded vultures from an expected population decline, they delay population extinction and can be a useful tool for prolonging population viability while combating illegal and indirect poisoning. The eradication of different sources of poisoning is of top priority to ensure the long-term viability of this and many other species.

Causes and spatio-temporal variations of non-natural mortality in the Vulnerable Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti during a recovery period

AbstractThe analysis of 267 records of non-natural mortality of the Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti over a 16-year period (1989-2004) shows an annual rate of 15.1 individuals found dead per year and that electrocution (47.7%) and poisoning (30.7%) were the most frequent causes of mortality. Most cases (91.7%) were of human origin, and of those 92.3% were accidental. Just over half (50.2%) were related to the transmission of electricity and human activity (collisions and electrocution), and 40.7% related to game practices and livestock protection (control of predators). No differences between sexes were found but subadults were electrocuted more frequently than expected whilst adults were poisoned more frequently. In breeding areas poison was the most frequent cause of mortality, whereas electrocution was the most common cause of death in dispersal areas. Poisoning occurred more frequently than expected in the Northern and Southern regions compared to the West-Central region. Electrocution was significantly more frequent in the West-Central region, and less common in the Southern region. The increase in electrocutions over the last few years is associated with previous non-permanent corrections on electricity power lines, whilst the increase in the cases of poisoning appears to be associated with the use of illegal poison in predator control by small game practices and for livestock protection. Permanent corrections in power lines and more research and awareness effort in the small game sector are recommended to reduce human-induced mortality in this Vulnerable species.

Preservation of wide-ranging top predators by site-protection: Black and red kites in Doñana National Park

We used data from a long-term study on two medium-sized generalist predators, the black kite ( Milvus migrans) and the red kite ( Milvus milvus), to illustrate the complexity of managing wide-ranging top predators by site-protection. The study was conducted between 1989 and 2000 in the Reserva Biológica de Doñana, located at the core of Doñana National Park. Both species occurred at high density and showed high productivity. Black kites were slightly increasing, and red kites showed a non-significant trend. The main cause of breeding failure was nest predation, mainly by mammalian predators, most likely Iberian lynx ( Lynx pardinus) or common genet ( Genetta genetta). The main cause of mortality was illegal poisoning, which sharply increased in the late 1990s. Nest-site selection models showed that: (1) black kites selected areas near the seasonal marshes, rich in their main prey species and (2) red kites selected areas rich in marshland and far from the park border, possibly in response to illegal poisoning episodes. Productivity was positively related to the availability of marshland and of open terrestrial habitats for black and red kites, respectively, and negatively related for both species to the density of black kites within 200 m of the nest. Our results showed that: (1) intraguild predation and competition among predators make outcomes of interspecific interactions extremely complex, leading to unpredictable side-effects of priority actions targeting one species at a time and (2) though the park was fenced and patrolled by wardens, the wide ranging behaviour of the two species made park borders permeable to negative human pressures, such as poisoning, leading to extreme edge effects and absence of a true, safe core of the park. Park management needs to be better integrated with its regional socio-economic and cultural context. Education programmes against illegal poisoning should be urgently promoted.

Recovery of a tropical stream after a harvest‐related chlorine poisoning event

Summary1. Harvest‐related poisoning events are common in tropical streams, yet research on stream recovery has largely been limited to temperate streams and generally does not include any measures of ecosystem function, such as leaf breakdown.2. We assessed recovery of a second‐order, high‐gradient stream draining the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico, 3 months after a chlorine‐bleach poisoning event. The illegal poisoning of freshwater shrimps for harvest caused massive mortality of shrimps and dramatic changes in those ecosystem properties influenced by shrimps. We determined recovery potential using an established recovery index and assessed actual recovery by examining whether the poisoned reach returned to conditions resembling an undisturbed upstream reference reach.3. Recovery potential was excellent (score = 729 of a possible 729) and can be attributed to nearby sources of organisms for colonisation, the mobility of dominant organisms, unimpaired habitat, rapid flushing and processing of chlorine, and location within a national forest.4. Actual recovery was substantial. Comparison of the reference reach with the formerly poisoned reach indicated: (1) complete recovery of xiphocaridid and palaemonid shrimp population abundances, shrimp size distributions, leaf breakdown rates, and abundances of oligochaetes and mayflies on leaves, and (2) only small differences in atyid shrimp abundance and community and ecosystem properties influenced by atyid shrimps (standing stocks of epilithic fine inorganic and organic matter, chlorophyll a, and abundances of chironomids and copepods on leaves).5. There was no detectable pattern between any measured variables and distance downstream from the poisoning. However, shrimp size‐distributions indicated that the observed recovery may represent a source‐sink dynamic, in which the poisoned reach acts as a sink which depletes adult shrimp populations from surrounding undisturbed habitats. Thus, the rapid recovery observed in this study is consistent with results from other field studies of pulse chlorine disturbances, harvest‐related fish poisonings, and recovery of freshwater biotic interactions, but it is unlikely to be sustainable if multiple poisonings deplete adult populations to the extent that juvenile recruitment does not offset adult shrimp mortality.

The association of grouse moor in Scotland with the illegal use of poisons to control predators

In the UK uplands, there is a conflict between the maintenance of high densities of red grouse ( Lagopus lagopus scoticus) for sporting shoots and the conservation of birds of prey on grouse moors where shoots take place. Several authors have indicated that as a result of this conflict, illegal use of poisoned baits to control predators is more likely to occur on grouse moors, but this association has not been examined formally. Mapping a form of land management unique to grouse moors (‘strip muirburn’), we use a GIS analysis to show that records of illegal poison use from 1981 to 2000 were disproportionately associated with grouse moors in Scotland. The association between poisoning incidents in the uplands and grouse moors was stronger in later years of the study period. It is suggested that this was at least partly due to a decline in the illegal use of poisons away from grouse moors. There was no evidence of any temporal decline in poisoning incidents on grouse moors over the study period. This research indicates that illegal methods for controlling predators (including protected birds of prey) are associated with traditional field sports and points to the need for management action.

EFFECTS OF FORESTRY AND OTHER LAND-USE PRACTICES ON THE CONSERVATION OF CINEREOUS VULTURES

Managing forests to meet both production and conservation goals is a growing challenge around the world, particularly as forest areas devoid of human intervention continue to shrink in area. There is a general lack of information about the response of long-lived vertebrates to silvicultural treatments due to the difficulty of carrying out long-term studies that can disentangle the effects of forestry from other factors influencing the distribution and numbers of large organisms. We examined the responses of the Cinereous Vulture, Aegypius monachus, to two divergent forestry practices in two colonies where ∼10% of the European population breeds: (1) long-term exploitation of mature forest in high mountains (highland colony), and (2) clear-cutting and regeneration in lower altitude mountain areas (lowland colony). Distribution patterns of Cinereous Vultures were determined mainly by forestry and human-related activities, as well as by orographic variables, whereas forest structure had a lesser influence. Ecological factors such as orography and forest structure had a greater influence in the distribution and abundance of vultures in the highland area, whereas the influence of variables associated with human disturbance was stronger in the lowland area. Vultures in the lowland area consistently selected areas with a low incidence of forestry activity to breed. A major fraction of the variability of breeding success was not explained by the factors considered, although human-caused disturbance and rainfall during the nestling period had negative effects on breeding success in the lowland colony. The negative effects of forestry activities may persist for a long time, even after the direct impacts of these activities have diminished. In order to effectively conserve breeding areas, it may be necessary to protect suitable habitat from human activity near nests. In addition, halting illegal poisoning is a strict necessity to guarantee the conservation of colonies. Social conflict between conservationists and forest managers who employ local people in nonproductive forestry tasks could easily be resolved by conducting silviculture-related practices in areas that are unimportant for conservation and directing employment toward activities related to nature conservation.

Conservation status and limiting factors in the endangered population of Egyptian vulture ( Neophron percnopterus) in the Canary Islands

Egyptian vulture populations have decreased sharply in the Western Palearctic; island populations are almost extinct in the Mediterranean and the Macaronesian regions. In the Canary archipelago, the species only survives in the islands of Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. During 1998–2001 we examined population parameters and evaluated some potential limiting factors for this isolated and sedentary population. The total population (breeding and non-breeding birds) was monitored annually. In addition, 26 fledglings and 33 immatures (<6 years old) and adult birds were captured for individual marking with plastic rings. Twenty-three/twenty-four occupied territories were located in the island and the total population estimated at around 130 birds. Breeding success was lower than recorded elsewhere in the species' distribution area: only 0.43 fledglings/pair/year were produced. Adult (>6 years old birds) and immature annual survival rates were similar, around 90%. Adult survival was lower than expected as territorial birds seem more susceptible to poisoning. Immature survival could be favoured by the existence of regular feeding places. Casualties from power lines was the main cause of mortality (12 cases during the study period). Blood sampling revealed high frequencies of lead poisoning: 13.5 and 2.7% of individuals showed sub-clinical and clinical intoxication levels, respectively, probably caused by the ingestion of lead shot. Priority conservation measures should be directed to reduce electrocution risks, illegal poisoning, and lead contamination. Population reinforcement with birds coming from other populations is not recommended as previous information reveals morphological and genetic differentiation of Canarian Egyptian vultures compared with continental populations.

Cattle predation by the golden jackal Canis aureus in the Golan Heights, Israel

About 1·5%–1·9% of the calves born in the Golan Heights die due to predation, mainly by golden jackals Canis aureus, and the total damage during 1993 was estimated at about US$ 42,000. Most attacks occur within 2 days after delivery, and male calves are more likely to be attacked than females, probably because they are heavier and more difficult to deliver. The high predation rate is a consequence of the artificially large population size of jackals, which is a result of food provided by humans in illegal garbage dumps. Farmers try to reduce the damage to cattle by illegal poisoning, thus affecting wildlife in the Golan.