Illegal Importation Research Articles

The use of DNA identification in prosecuting wildlife-traffickers in Australia: do the penalties fit the crimes?

The use of genetic identification techniques in wildlife forensic investigations has increased significantly in recent years. The utilization of DNA is especially important when species identification using other methods are inconclusive. Australia has strict laws against illegal importation of wildlife as well as laws to protect its unique biodiversity from pests and diseases of quarantine concern. Two separate case studies in which genetic identification was essential for species identification are presented-the first involved illegally held shark fins, the second illegally imported live bird eggs. In the latter case genetic identification enabled charges to be laid for illegal importation of CITES Appendix I species. Australian laws allow for some of the highest penalties for illegal trade of wildlife compared to other countries, however only a fraction of cases are prosecuted and penalties applied to date have been lower than the maximum permitted. Both of the reported cases resulted in fines, and one in imprisonment of the offender, which provides a persuasive precedent for future prosecutions.

Early medical abortion: legal and medical developments in Australia

Mifepristone is a safe, effective and relatively cheap drug that plays an important role in women's health care and is widely used for early medical abortion in many countries. The Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) can authorise mifepristone to be imported into and marketed in Australia. To date, no pharmaceutical company has applied to register mifepristone in Australia. The TGA can also permit medical practitioners to prescribe medicine that is not approved for marketing in Australia under the Authorised Prescribers scheme. The number of approvals for mifepristone has gradually increased, in spite of a complicated and protracted application process. Approval under the Authorised Prescribers scheme requires medical practitioners to comply with state or territory legislation. Abortion laws in Australia vary between jurisdictions, and in some states the law is unclear and confusing. The decriminalisation of abortion in all Australian jurisdictions would protect medical practitioners from criminal liability, promote the health interests of Australian women, and discourage the illegal importation of abortifacients that are being used without quality controls or medical supervision. The Victorian Abortion Law Reform Act 2008 is one legislative model for this.

The scale of illegal meat importation from Africa to Europe via Paris

AbstractConcerns have been raised about the illegal import of bushmeat from Africa into Europe, particularly regarding the health risks posed to people and livestock. The role of international trade in driving unsustainable hunting in source countries is unknown, but generally assumed to be limited. Here, we present the first systematic study of the scale and nature of this international trade. We estimate that around five tonnes of bushmeat per week is smuggled in personal baggage through Paris Roissy‐Charles de Gaulle airport. Bushmeat is not only imported for personal consumption but is part of a lucrative organized trade, with high prices indicating luxury status. A wide range of species is carried, many of which are CITES‐listed. Based on these findings, we suggest ways in which customs, airlines, and airport authorities could reduce imports, focussing on raising awareness of regulations, and improving surveillance and deterrence, particularly where CITES‐listed species are concerned.

Detection strategies for non-authorized GMO products on the European market

Import and planting of biotech crops is strictly regulated in Europe. In order to observe these strict regulations, an efficient surveillance of the European market is required. In Europe, data on authorised biotech crops from foreign countries are on hand, however, only scarce information on non-authorised biotech crops is available. Experience of the last years has shown that non-authorized biotech crops (e.g. biotech-papaya, Bt10-maize, LL601-rice and Bt63-rice) were detected on the European market. The Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority is responsible for the detection of illegal imports and for labelling control of Food and Feed in Bavaria (Germany). The quantitative real-time PCR is the method of choice for the detection of genetic modifications in plants on DNA level. Therefore, data on novel DNA constructs and event-specific detection methods need to be gathered to assure the surveillance of the market for non-authorised GMO.

Detection strategies for non-authorized GMO products on the European market

AbstractImport and planting of biotech crops is strictly regulated in Europe. In order to observe these strict regulations, an efficient surveillance of the European market is required. In Europe, data on authorised biotech crops from foreign countries are on hand, however, only scarce information on non-authorised biotech crops is available. Experience of the last years has shown that non-authorized biotech crops (e.g. biotech-papaya, Bt10-maize, LL601-rice and Bt63-rice) were detected on the European market. The Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority is responsible for the detection of illegal imports and for labelling control of Food and Feed in Bavaria (Germany). The quantitative real-time PCR is the method of choice for the detection of genetic modifications in plants on DNA level. Therefore, data on novel DNA constructs and event-specific detection methods need to be gathered to assure the surveillance of the market for non-authorised GMO.

Risk for the introduction of exotic ticks and pathogens into Italy through the illegal importation of tortoises, Testudo graeca

In April 2008, 585 tortoises illegally imported into Italy from North Africa were examined for the presence of ticks. Of these, 221 tortoises (37.8%) were infested with a mean intensity of 3.9 +/- 3.1 ticks (range 1-17 ticks). A total of 798 ticks (672 males, 125 females and one nymph) were collected and identified as Hyalomma aegyptium (L.) (Acari: Ixodidae). The overall male : female ratio observed was 5 : 1. The prevalence and mean intensity [+/-standard deviation (SD)] of ticks were higher among male (67.4%, 4.0 +/- 3.2) than female (55.6%, 3.8 +/- 3.1) tortoises, although this difference was not significant. By contrast, the prevalence and mean intensity of ticks were significantly higher on tortoises weighing >100 g (61.5%, 4.0 +/- 3.2) compared with tortoises weighing <100 g (12.1%, 2.1 +/- 1.1). Of the infested tortoises, 89.8% had ticks on their hind limbs, 21.0% on forelimbs, 18.6% on the tail and pre-anal area, and 4.8% on the head; thus the hind limbs were evidently the preferred attachment site. The present report highlights the need to develop surveillance systems to prevent the introduction and spreading of exotic ticks and tick-borne pathogens in Italy and other European countries.

Characteristics of E-waste Recycling Systems in Japan and China

This study aims to identify processes, current situations, and issues of recycling systems for four home appliances, namely, air conditioners, television receivers, refrigerators, and washing machines, among e-wastes in China and Japan for understanding and comparison of their characteristics. In accordance with results of a literature search, review of information disclosed online, and questionnaire survey conducted, conclusions of the study boil down to: (1)The results show that in Japan most of the home appliances mentioned above have been collected through home appliance recycling tickets, resulting in an issue of requiring some effort in treatment and recycling stages, and most plants have contracted out their e-waste recycling. (2)It is found out that advantages of the recycling system in Japan include easiness to monitor concrete data and thorough environmental friendliness ensured while its disadvantages include illegal dumping and export. It becomes apparent that advantages of the recycling system in China include a high reuse rate, low treatment cost, and fewer illegal dumping while its disadvantages include less safe reused products, environmental pollution caused by e-waste treatment, illegal import, and difficulty in obtaining data. Keywords—E-waste, Recycling Systems, Home Appliances, Japan and China.

Modeling the impacts of policy measures to prevent import of illegal wood and wood products

The impact of using alternative measures to curb EU imports of illegally harvested wood are compared based on the simulation runs of the EFI-GTM global forest sector model. Four policy options are considered: 1) Baseline Scenario – Voluntary Partnership Agreements (VPA) between the EU and six countries, 2) Option 1 – expanded VPAs increased to include 12 countries covering most of the sources of illegally traded wood, 3) Option 3 - border control actions stopping illegal imports from all non-EU countries entering into the EU, 4) Option 4 - all illegal wood coming both from the EU and non-EU countries is eliminated. The Baseline scenario with six VPA partners has the strongest impacts with respect to reduced harvests, increased wood prices and reduced industrial production in the baseline VPA countries, whereas harvests, production and forest sector value added increases in non-VPA countries with a high or moderate risk for illegal logging and in low risk regions like the EU and USA. However, these positive changes are marginal. Under Option 1 all 12 potential VPA countries are expected to suffer from a lowering of harvests and production. The EU, USA and other low and high/moderate risk countries increase their harvests, production and value added. These positive changes are substantially more significant, since the suggested 12 VPA countries cover most of the trade of illegal wood. Under Option 3 & 4 the impacts are rather marginal, since these options do not foresee elimination of illegal logging for high-risk countries under VPA arrangements. These options mostly affect trade with the EU in the short to medium term.

The Voluntary Partnership Agreement: the Ghanaian and Malaysian experience

This paper looks at how the Voluntary Partnership Agreement is working by using the Ghanaian and Malaysian experiences on this process. The difference in the forest management system in both Ghana and Malaysia, in itself poses some challenges to the implementation of the VPA. Further, the multi-stake holder approach used in Ghana, and the inter-governmental approach used in Malaysia presents different scenarios that may influence the implementation of the VPA. It is important to realize that measures that properly address circumvention and illegal imports from non-partner countries are of crucial importance for Voluntary Partnership Agreements (VPAs) to be a success. Therefore, the only way for Ghana and Malaysia to see VPA as a success is to be assisted in every way to build capacity among the law enforcement agencies.

Serologischer und klinischer Nachweis der Freiheit von Equiner Infektiöser Anämie (EIA) bei importierten und einheimischen Pferden in der Schweiz

Since 1991, no cases of Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) have been reported in Switzerland. Risk factors for introduction of the virus into Switzerland are still present or have even increased as frequent inapparent infections, large numbers of imported horses, (since 2003) absence of compulsory testing prior to importation, EIA cases in surrounding Europe, possible illegal importation of horses, frequent short-term stays, poor knowledge of the disease among horse owners and even veterinarians. The aim of this study was to provide evidence of freedom from EIA in imported and domestic horses in Switzerland. The serum samples from 434 horses imported since 2003 as well as from 232 domestic horses fifteen years of age or older (since older horses have naturally had a longer time of being exposed to the risk of infection) were analysed using a commercially available ELISA test. All samples were seronegative, indicating that the maximum possible prevalence that could have been missed with this sample was 0.5% (95% confidence).

How to ‘Melt the Ice’ on the Streets: A Social-Control Analysis on the Rise of Methamphetamine within Australia and the Need to Reduce Demand

Since its emergence in the mid-1990s the increased use, illegal importation and home production of methamphetamine in Australia have sparked significant concern among the community, law enforcement agencies and policy-makers alike. In particular, the normalisation of methamphetamine consumption within some sub-groups, notably young people through the dance-party scene, has elicited a strong media concern and reactive law enforcement response. The classification and sale of pseudoephedrine through pharmacies, the implementation of Project STOP, and the intensification of punitive regulations are just some examples of the tough-on-crime reaction of the Federal and State governments. However, the response to the emerging methamphetamine so-called ‘epidemic’ in Australia should also encompass a critical analysis of the demand-side of the illicit drug industry. Given the need to focus on the safety and welfare of individuals within the community, Australia's response to this synthetic drug has recently begun moving towards more comprehensive demand-reduction initiatives and treatments.

Methods in herpetological forensic work — clinical techniques

Biologists, law enforcement officials and veterinarians are routinely called upon to investigate reptile cases for abuse, neglect, illegal importation, and abandonment. While pursuing these situations, it is important that evidence is collected in an organized and systematic way to ensure successful prosecution or to mount a defense. There are different types of evidence that can be amassed to diagnose a disease/condition in a reptile case. Antemortem clinical investigations can be conducted for those cases where the animals are alive, while postmortem examinations should be pursued for animals that have expired. The purpose of this article is to review the common antemortem clinical techniques that can be used for forensic cases. There are a number of clinical diagnostics available for the forensic case, including the physical examination, clinical pathology, parasite diagnostics, infectious disease diagnostics, clinical toxicology, and diagnostic imaging. In addition to the clinical techniques, it is important to review and document the methods used to house and care for the animals. For this, a thorough review of the husbandry practices provided for the animal is needed.

Extended producer responsibility in a non-OECD context: The management of waste electrical and electronic equipment in India

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has caused concern from many sectors of society due to its growing quantity and potential toxicity. The situation is particularly worrisome in some non-OECD countries, such as India and China, where acute health and environmental hazards have resulted from a combination of a lack of proper WEEE management systems and the domination of a large backyard recycling sector. This study explores the feasibility of dealing with such problems in a non-OECD context by applying extended producer responsibility (EPR), an environmental policy principle that has been applied to the management of WEEE in many OECD countries. Using India as a case study, this investigation identifies two main obstacles in the Indian context that can undermine the EPR mechanisms: large grey markets for some electronic products, and illegal imports of WEEE. Although an EPR programme might not be able to address the two problems on its own, there are measures that can curb the scale of these two illegal activities. More importantly, this analysis of the current situation in India suggests that a timely national programme based on the EPR principle can be a driving force for the formalisation of the downstream sector and strengthen the existing industrial initiatives such as voluntary take-back schemes.

Regulating Electrical and Electronic Wastes in China

China, as the largest producer, consumer and exporter of electrical and electronic (EE) products in the world, is facing great challenges in regulating its growing e‐waste as the result of domestic generation and illegal imports from overseas. The Government of China has gradually developed a regulatory framework for its e‐waste management. Existing and imminent e‐waste regulations encourage eco‐design in the EE industry, define the responsibility of various stakeholders and stipulate necessary measures for regulating e‐waste collection, dismantling and disposal. A special fund that aims to support the development of a formal e‐waste collecting and disposal sector will soon be set up. New measures have also been adopted to strengthen the control of illegal imports of e‐waste. To bring China's e‐waste regulation in line with that of foreign countries, China's regulation (or rule) on electronic information products (China's RoHs), equivalent to the EU's RoHS Directive, has also been implemented. This article gives a general account of China's regulatory framework for e‐waste management and points out some remaining challenges that China still faces in its e‐waste regulation.

Isolation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Virus from Saker Falcons (Falco cherrug) in the Middle East

There is accumulating evidence that birds of prey are susceptible to fatal infection with highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus. We studied the antigenic, molecular, phylogenetic, and pathogenic properties of 2 HPAI H5N1 viruses isolated from dead falcons in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait in 2005 and 2007, respectively. Phylogenetic and antigenic analyses grouped both isolates in clade 2.2 (Qinghai-like viruses). However, the viruses appeared to have spread westward via different flyways. It remains unknown how these viruses spread so rapidly from Qinghai after the 2005 outbreak and how they were introduced into falcons in these two countries. The H5N1 outbreaks in the Middle East are believed by some to be mediated by wild migratory birds. However, sporting falcons may be at additional risk from the illegal import of live quail to feed them.

The Illegal Economy in the Restaurant Sector in Denmark

This paper discusses some of the known illegal methods used in the restaurant business, for example tax fiddles, employment of illegal or undeclared labour, and illegal import of supplies. In Denmark, with its high tax and wage levels, the temptation to fiddle is possibly bigger than in other countries. This paper estimates the economic importance and employment consequences of shadow activities in the Danish restaurant sector. The authorities employ various methods in their continuing struggle against the underground economy, for example control actions and raids. Licensing and self-control launched by trade associations or public agencies is another way of limiting such behaviour. Deregulation and the lowering of taxes are supposed to have similar effects. In time, pressure by informed consumers might become a potent remedy. This paper discusses the efficiency in a European context. Fraud has a number of consequences, the loss of tax receipts being the most often mentioned. This paper also addresses problems such as the distortion of competition, inequality of access to cheaper services and the negative effects on the quality of products and services. For enterprises, participation in shadow activities may lead to growth trapping. If substantial proportions of restaurants' activities are not openly accounted for, it will put obstacles in the way of certain types of recognised business trajectories, and it will be difficult for public and trade associations to push for the continual professionalisation of the industry.

Sectional Crises and the Fate of Africans Illegally Imported into the United States, 1806–1860

The problem of how to dispose of Africans illegally imported as slaves into the United States, and its part played in the destruction of the Union, has been neglected by historians. First arising in 1806–07, it caused immediate sectional antagonism provoking threats of Civil War. Why? Because it involved more than just the broadly unanimous desire to end the slave trade but touched the much more sensitive issue of slavery as well. The issue of illegal slave imports underscored sectional differences, pitting Northerners against Southerners in their attitudes to slavery. Its ability to inflame politics was such that both sides acquiesced in an imperfect solution to the problem that tacitly supported the efforts of the controversial American Colonization Society to establish a colony in Africa which could be used to dump illegal slave imports. Yet appropriating money to carry out the terms of this solution gave rise to further sectional rhetoric reflecting deteriorating relations, which the problem itself contributed to, after Missouri. Cases of slave ships and debates centred on the fate of Africans found aboard them contributed to Southern anxiety and aggressiveness about federal interference in slavery and provoked the North into making clear anti‐slavery statements. Successive debates provided an opportunity for both sections to articulate, and in turn, develop, radically different ideological standpoints: the North implacably anti‐slavery and the South overwhelmingly pro‐slavery. The fruition of pro‐slavery ideology ultimately convinced the South to see the compulsory return of illegal slave imports to Africa as a slur against their institution and supported a revision of the terms of disposition. It was a compromise solution to their own struggle to marry a continuing commitment to ending the slave trade with a pride in slavery.

The power of resolution of microsatellite markers and assignment tests to determine the geographic origin of cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus) in Southern Africa

Formerly found in 44 countries in Africa and Asia, cheetahs are currently confined to fragmented populations in 29 African countries, and remnant populations in Iran and Pakistan (Marker 2002). In southern Africa, cheetahs are at present found in Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Trade in cheetah products and live export of cheetah from Namibia and Botswana is stringently controlled (CITES 1992). As a result, conservation authorities are constantly aware of potential illegal trade in cheetah over the Namibian and Botswana borders with South Africa. Where foul-play is involved, identification of source populations of confiscated animals will require implementation of identification techniques based on multilocus genotypes. Manel et al. (2002) demonstrated that genetic methods have high power of resolution to determine the geographic origin of population samples for sufficiently differentiated populations. Forensic science services for domesticated animals are well established in South Africa and have in recent years expanded to include game species, marine fish stock identification and ornamental fish (Grobler et al. 2005). In this paper, we describe the power of resolution of microsatellite markers and assignment tests to determine the geographic origin of cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) confiscated in South Africa on suspicion of illegal import. Cheetah was formerly thought to be genetically highly monomorphic (presumably following a historic bottleneck), based on allozyme data (O’Brien et al. 1983). Subsequent studies (Menotti-Raymond and O’Brien 1993, 1995) have revealed genetic heterogeneity for microsatellite markers. This has been attributed to accumulated variation since the hypothetical bottleneck, resultant from the high mutation rates of microsatellite markers (Hedrick 1996). The presence of a moderate level of genetic diversity, comparable to other felids for some markers (Menotti-Raymond and O’Brien 1993), suggests that marker-based forensic identification in cheetah is feasible. Six cheetahs held on a farm without the required permits were confiscated by conservation authorities in the North West Province of South Africa. The farm is situated in an area known for a high incidence of illegal trade in cheetah, especially across the border with Botswana, and foul-play was therefore suspected. To assign the six unknown cheetah to their most likely region of origin, the animals were genotyped using microsatellite markers, and then compared to cheetah of known origin. The reference populations consisted of wild cheetah from Botswana, Namibia and the northwestern parts of South Africa. Geographical locations of ARTICLE IN PRESS

EFSA Scientific Risk Assessment on Animal Health and Welfare Aspects of Avian Influenza (EFSA-Q-2004-075)

Outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) (2000-2003) resulted in 50 million EU birds culled or dead. The circulation of H5N1 in Asia could represent the origin of a human pandemic. Questions have been raised to combat the ongoing AI crisis. HPAI H5N1 has spilled over to resident and migratory wild bird populations which could represent a means of the virus reaching the EU, but lack of data make any forecast imprudent. Poultry holdings located close to migratory bird breeding and resting sites are considered at greater risk of exposure and methods to prevent exposure should be implemented. Legal safeguards for importation of poultry commodities currently only apply to HPAI and rely on detection of clinical signs that may not be observable during incubation period. Illegal imports represent an additional risk. Insufficient data on the effectiveness of commodity processing are available and few indications can be deducted. Biosecurity is the primary tool to prevent AI introduction and secondary spread. Massive spread was observed in densely populated poultry areas resulting in vaccination programs. Vaccination should be used to support eradication together with enhanced biosecurity and restriction measures, which shall also be implemented in case of prophylactic vaccination. Animal welfare aspects of AI include use of appropriate culling methods, correct vaccine application, and availability of trained staff. EFSA has recently set up a new scientific work group to further assess the risk of HPAI introduction and spread posed in particular by wild, migratory birds, as well as further follow-up of recent AI developments.

Corruption, illegal trade and compliance with the Montreal Protocol

This paper studies the effects of corruption, rule of law and tariffs on illegal trade in chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Since data on illegal trade is not available, it is not possible to test any theoretical conclusions about smuggling. The paper, however, attempts to circumvent the problem by developing a model of illegal trade in CFCs that derives predictions about the effects of corruption, rule of law and tariffs on both legal and illegal imports of CFCs. Then the theoretical predictions concerning legal imports are tested using panel data on CFC consumption. Using the estimates of legal imports, inferences about illegal trade are made. The basic findings indicate that knowledge about the degree of rule of law, corruption and the level of tariffs is needed for the correct interpretation of the data on environmental performance reported to international monitoring agencies.