Illegal Gold Mining Research Articles

The improvement of paddy soil chemical properties following the application of rice husk derived biocharin the Regency of Sijunjung

The district of Dharmasraya, Sijunjung and Pasaman Barat are the three main locations of illegal gold mining in West Sumatra. This kind of activity triggers a lot of land-use changes and the loss of agricultural land within those areas and creates environmental problems as well. Decreasing agricultural land will bring a significant impact on food availability within the region. To protect the scarcity of food, we conducted remediation of ex-gold mining land on those three locations by using biochar made from rice husk. This study was carried on at Batu Manjulur village, Kupitan sub-district in Sijunjung for four months, where soil sample was analyzed at Soil Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Andalas University. The experiment use 6 level of biochar application, run from A [without biochar]; B [fulfil of 2% soil organic matter content [SOM]]; C [fulfil 3% SOM]; D [fulfil 4% SOM], E [fulfil 5% SOM] and F [fulfil 6% SOM] with three replication. The result shows the application of rice husk-derived biochar increased soil quality including the chemical properties of the soil and improving nutrient retention and land productivity.

Effects of mercury at field estimated concentration in brain of Bombus atratus (Hymenoptera: Bombini)

Although mercury neurotoxic effects are well known in several species, it is poorly studied in bees. Mercury contamination is increasing in several regions of the Brazilian Amazon Rainforest due to illegal and indiscriminate gold mining. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of mercury (Hg) in brain Kenyon cells of foraging workers of Bombus atratus exposed to an average concentration (110 ppb) found in pots of honey from native bees of South America and Australia. Twenty forager workers were collected in the field (23° 34′ S 47° 31′ W), divided into control (n = 10) and exposed (n = 10) groups, and individually kept in special boxes for 48 h. For the exposed group, we offered Hg solution (at 110 ppb) ad libitum, while for the control group we offered water, and for both sucrose syrup at 70%. After the exposure time, the bees were crio-anesthezied at 4 °C. Brains were dissected and processed for morphological, morphometric, and histochemical analyses. Morphological results showed that the Kenyon cells of the Hg-exposed group presented both cytoplasmic vacuolization and nuclear pyknosis, which indicate cell death. These findings were corroborated by the acridine orange staining. Hg exposure also induced significant nuclear chromatin compaction in Kenyon cells. The calyces and peduncles of the mushroom bodies showed disorganization and vacuolization. In summary, these changes may imply in a severe impairment of the cognitive abilities of the bees, which could lead them to the loss of many tasks, such as foraging or even nest founding by the queen.

Cross-border malaria in Northern Brazil

BackgroundCross-border malaria is a major barrier to elimination efforts. Along the Venezuela-Brazil-Guyana border, intense human mobility fueled primarily by a humanitarian crisis and illegal gold mining activities has increased the occurrence of cross-border cases in Brazil. Roraima, a Brazilian state situated between Venezuela and Guyana, bears the greatest burden. This study analyses the current cross-border malaria epidemiology in Northern Brazil between the years 2007 and 2018.MethodsDe-identified data on reported malaria cases in Brazil were obtained from the Malaria Epidemiological Surveillance Information System for the years 2007 to 2018. Pearson’s Chi-Square test of differences was utilized to assess differences between characteristics of cross-border cases originating from Venezuela and Guyana, and between border and transnational cases. A logistic regression model was used to predict imported status of cases.ResultsCross-border cases from Venezuela and Guyana made up the majority of border and transnational cases since 2012, and Roraima remained the largest receiving state for cross-border cases over this period. There were significant differences in the profiles of border and transnational cases originating from Venezuela and Guyana, including type of movement and nationality of patients. Logistic regression results demonstrated Venezuelan and Guyanese nationals, Brazilian miners, males, and individuals of working age had heightened odds of being an imported case. Furthermore, Venezuelan citizens had heightened odds of seeking care in municipalities adjacent Venezuela, rather than transnational municipalities.ConclusionsCross-border malaria contributes to the malaria burden at the Venezuela-Guyana-Brazil border. The identification of distinct profiles of case importation provides evidence on the need to strengthen surveillance at border areas, and to deploy tailored strategies that recognize different mobility routes, such as the movement of refuge-seeking individuals and of Brazilians working in mining.

The adsorption of hg2+ ions from the illegal gold mining wastewater using fly ash from palm shells

Mercury has a significant negative effect on the health of humans and living things, and is a dangerous element that is widely known. Mercury is commonly found in gold mining wastewater. One way to remove mercury from waste water is to use the adsorption process. One of the adsorbents used in the absorption of mercury is palm shell fly ash. Palm shell fly ash is solid waste from the result of burning palm shells on the boiler. The use of fly ash from palm shells as an adsorbent is preferred because it is cheap, environmentally friendly and available in large quantities. The adsorption process is carried out by contacting the adsorbent directly with waste water. Addition of adsorbents to wastewater can increase the pH of wastewater to 4 levels. The best adsorption results are indicated by the efficiency of mercury ion absorption up to 100%. The adsorption capacity of the adsorbent increases with increasing time of stirring the adsorbent in wastewater.

Impacts of Illegal Small-Scale Mining (Galamsey) on Manse and Ankobra Rivers in the Prestea Huni-valley Municipality of Ghana

Water samples from four sampling sites (Ankobra upstream (AUS), Ankobra downstream (ADS), Manse upstream (MUS) and Manse downstream (MDS) along the profile of Ankobra and Manse rivers in PresteaHuni-Valley Municipality in the Western Region of Ghana were collected and analysed for a period of six months with the aim of assessing the effects of illegal small-scale mining (galamsey) on the water quality. Levels of physicochemical parameters such as Potential of Hydrogen ( pH), Temperature, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Electrical Conductivity (EC), Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), True Colour and heavy metals such as Iron (Fe), Lead (Pb), Copper (Cu), Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd) and Mercury (Hg) were determined. The levels of the parameters studied suggest that illegal small-scale gold mining operations have impacted negatively on the water quality of the Ankobra and Manse rivers looking at the high levels of true colour, turbidity, total suspended solids, iron and mercury which exceeded the WHO recommended guideline values, the clayey undrinkable water from the two rivers, the fishes and other aquatic creatures that have died and the pits that have been dug along the banks of the rivers which now serve as breeding places for mosquitoes.

Kontaminasi Merkuri (Hg) Pada Air Sungai, Air Sumur, Sedimen Dan Ikan Di Sungai Kuantan, Riau

Illegal gold mining activities still frequently occur in the Kuantan River, which is one of the main rivers in the district of Kuantan Singingi, Riau. This activity causes environmental contamination of mercury (Hg). The objective of this research was to determine the contamination of Hg in river water, well water, sediment and fish (baung and kapiek) in the Kuantan River, Riau. Samples were taken at up, middle and downstreams of the Kuantan River. Mercury was analized by following APHA and Indonesian National Standard (SNI) methods. The results were compared with the quality standard of pollution. The results showed that average of Hg concentration in river water, well water, sediment and fish were 0,0325 mg/l, 0,0202 – 0,0231 mg/l, 0,2083 mg/kg, 0,1141 - 0,1224 mg/kg. Statistical analysis indicated that the concentration of Hg in river water, well water (middle and downstream) and sediment were above the quality standard, while in the samples of baung and kapiek were below the quality standard. Hg concentrations significantly increased from up to downstream locations in river water and sediment, Hg concentrations significantly increased in 2 community wells in middle and downstream locations, significant Hg concentration was found in kapiek caught in midstream locations, while there was no significantly at the Hg concentration of baung in the research location.
 

Spread of liquid waste in un-licited gold mining by geoelectrical method in Krueng Sabee sub-district Aceh

Illegal gold mining has increased significantly in Keude village of Krueng Sabee Aceh Jaya subdistrict. This causes environmental damage in the form of waste mercury pollution in the area. Environmental pollution caused by waste needs to be addressed. However, it needs to determine the appropriate method to overcome it by knowing the depth and the spread of mercury waste. This study aims to visualize subsurface conditions in the area of Krueng Sabee to provide information and data on the spread of mercury wastes. By using the method of geoelectric resistivity Schlumberger array, the contamination can be seen below the surface by the resistivity value of the sites. Results from these measurements after inverted using Earth Imager software of Res2Dinv can get a picture and visualize the location of subsurface conditions of the study. The results show that the resistivity value of waste mercury-contaminated soil at the study site ranged from 2–5 Ωm, and waste mercury contamination occurs vertically to a depth of 3 meters.

Malaria in Southern Venezuela: The hottest hotspot in Latin America.

Malaria elimination in Latin America is becoming an elusive goal. Malaria cases reached a historical ~1 million in 2017 and 2018, with Venezuela contributing 53% and 51% of those cases, respectively. Historically, malaria incidence in southern Venezuela has accounted for most of the country's total number of cases. The efficient deployment of disease prevention measures and prediction of disease spread to new regions requires an in-depth understanding of spatial heterogeneity on malaria transmission dynamics. Herein, we characterized the spatial epidemiology of malaria in southern Venezuela from 2007 through 2017 and described the extent to which malaria distribution has changed country-wide over the recent years. We found that disease transmission was focal and more prevalent in the southeast region of southern Venezuela where two persistent hotspots of Plasmodium vivax (76%) and P. falciparum (18%) accounted for ~60% of the total number of cases. Such hotspots are linked to deforestation as a consequence of illegal gold mining activities. Incidence has increased nearly tenfold over the last decade, showing an explosive epidemic growth due to a significant lack of disease control programs. Our findings highlight the importance of spatially oriented interventions to contain the ongoing malaria epidemic in Venezuela. This work also provides baseline epidemiological data to assess cross-border malaria dynamics and advocates for innovative control efforts in the Latin American region.

Integrated Strategy to Curtail Illegal Gold Mining: A Case Study in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia

Abstract. Illegal gold mining has disturbed the operation of a mining company (Indo Muro Kencana) in Central Kalimantan since the early 1990s. Several disputes have happened, including two serious conflicts, causing financial losses, damage to facilities, and fatalities, forcing the company to stop operations in 2002 and 2013. Eventually, the original investors abandoned the site. Various countermeasures were taken, including harsh law enforcement involving police and military forces’ deployment, yet the illegal mining activities continued. Since 2015, the new management has implemented new approaches; within five years, the number of illegal miners has decreased considerably. This study aims to identify the reasons behind the disputes and how the new management reduces illegal mining within its concession without triggering further conflict. This research is a case study using in-depth interviews, complemented by a study of corporate and media documents. Five factors were identified behind the previous conflicts. The new management’s integrated strategy to manage social issues, including illegal mining, started with social mapping, then an integrated team to deal with social issues was established, and finally, an integrated plan was introduced with four agendas: engagement, presence, respect and inclusiveness, and cohesiveness. This study contributes to company-community model building in similar circumstances and, in practice, offers a solution to curtail illegal gold mining, particularly in Indonesia. Keywords: Conflict, illegal gold mining, illegal miners, integrated, Kalimantan.

Problems and perspectives of the ineffective gold-bearing deposits development

This article discusses the problems and prospects of mining placer gold not only in the Trans-Baikal Territory but also in Russia as a whole. The reduction of reserves in placers and a decrease in the quality of minerals in them open up new prospects for the extraction of this precious metal. The ineffective placers, of which, according to preliminary estimates, there are approximately 600 in the Trans-Baikal Territory, can become promising objects in gold mining. However, there are some negative factors that will complicate the gold mining operations. The mining of alluvial gold, even with the best existing technologies, remains a sector of high environmental risk; in many settlements, a gradual decrease in the population and the “extinction” of settlements is predicted, whereas illegal gold mining is gaining traction. Neither the regional nor the federal institutions of environmental supervision are now able to resist the destruction and degradation of nature from the mining of placer gold. In general, this leads to an increase in the negative impact of alluvial gold mining on natural systems and the socioeconomic sustainable development of the regions and municipalities, in which this type of activity is carried out, as well as an increase in accumulated environmental damage. The presented organizational and economic mechanism for the development of ineffective placers will contribute to solving the problems observed in the industry and will allow the implementation of measures proposed by public persons.

Metal Contamination of an Underground Gold Picking Zone in the Department of Djekanou, Cote D’Ivoire

Illegal gold mining has developed in recent years in the department of Djekanou with the rising cost of gold on the world market, due to the slump in local agricultural products and the unemployment of young people of working age. It has become an essential activity along with agriculture and farming in rural areas. It is an effective way to fight poverty. However, this practice is likely to cause significant environmental damage. Thus, to assess the environmental quality of this region prone to gold mining activity, the determination of the level of metallic contamination of environmental matrices (soils and sediments) was carried out. Four (4) soil and sediment sampling campaigns took place in dry and rainy seasons on the illegal gold mining site and near the dam, all located at about 685 m from Yobouekro, on the gold washing site of Taffissou at 3,425 m from Djekanou and at Groudji in the department of Djekanou. The sediment sampling was carried out by Strahler's method, while that of the soils was taken at random over the extent of the gold washing sites. The total concentrations of metals in the different matrices were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). The analytical results show that the metal contents are lower than the natural content of each element in the earth's crust (UCC). Gold mining activities are not currently a source of metallic contamination of the environment. Also, the contamination factors recorded from the concentrations of metals are all less than 1, indicating low contamination of sediments and soils by trace metal elements despite intense gold mining activity. Notwithstanding, the evaluation of the environmental quality from the concentrations of the metals Cd, Co, Cr, Hg and Pb compared to the American guide values SQGs (TEC and PEC), it is noted that the receiving environment is contaminated only by mercury, cadmium and cyanide; the values of the other parameters studied being lower than the guide values. The two matrices mentioned above were also assayed with cyanide and the results revealed that the sites of Groudji and Taffissou are contaminated.

Environmental crimes in extractive activities: Explanations for low enforcement effectiveness in the case of illegal gold mining in Madre de Dios, Peru

Despite the existence of multiple laws that codify regulations defining environmental crimes, illegal practices in extractive activities tend to occur because rules are not enforced. This study therefore aims to advance explanations as to why there is low effectiveness of enforcement of regulations to tackle environmental crimes in extractive activities. We draw on the law enforcement literature to identify explanations for why environmental enforcement fails to deter illegal practices in extractive activities. We then take up the case of illegal mining in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) in the region of Madre de Dios (MDD) in the Peruvian Amazon. We evaluate qualitative data from multiple sources including legal documents, reports and interviews. The findings suggest two issues that have shaped low enforcement effectiveness in MDD: conflicts and lack of collaboration among agencies at different levels and sectors of government, and inadequate resource allocation from the national government to other levels. Enforcement is not monolithic in one governmental authority; therefore, it is crucial to recognize and address the existence of multiple levels and sectors of enforcement to improve the effectiveness of enforcement actions. These findings bear implications for theoretical perspectives on enforcement as well as public policies to increase effectiveness of enforcement of environmental regulations.

Problemas medioambientales de la minería aurífera ilegal en Madre de Dios (Perú)

El Perú, es un país minero, exportando a nivel internacional muchos minerales como el oro, plata, cobre, etc. Las leyes que existen en el Perú, permiten que la actividad minera se pueda ejercer de manera legal en el país. Aunque lastimosamente, los trámites son muy engorrosos que desanima e incentiva a muchos a convertir lo legal a ilegal. Y quien se ve afectada lastimosamente, es la Amazonía peruana. La minería ilegal aurífera en el Departamento de Madre de Dios – Perú, ha afectado incluso a las áreas naturales protegidas en el Departamento de Madre de Dios. Además de otros problemas medioambientales que genera; como la destrucción de bosques, alteración del cauce delos ríos, contaminación por mercurio, destrucción dela vegetación ribereña y alterando el paisaje.

Deforestation in Conservation Units of the Brazilian Amazon: the case of the Terra do Meio Mosaic

The Terra do Meio Mosaic in the Brazilian Amazon was created with the purpose of inhibiting illegal logging and gold mining, as well as land grabbing, cattle raising and other activities that promote deforestation in the region. This work analyzes the dynamics of the deforestation (clear-cutting) in this set of Conservation Units and how they contain deforestation in the region. These protected areas have been shown as an efficient tool in conserving natural ecosystems, with maintenance of main forest cover. The exception is the Triunfo do Xingu Environmental Protection Area which has less power to contain deforestation because it is a category that involves private lands. Na important reason for the clear cut of the forest is the establishment of pasture for cattle breeding. In the municipalities that contains the Mosaic, the small properties (up to 4 fiscal modules) are the ones that present the highest proportion of deforestation. The Indigenous Lands also play an important role in the maintenance of the Conservation Units functioning as a protective boundary zone and in refraining the clear-cutting, which occurs mainly in the surroundings of rivers and roads.

Illegal gold mining in Indonesia: structure and causes

PurposeThis study aims to understand the process, structure and determinants of persistent illegal gold mining in Indonesia.Design/methodology/approachAn exploratory study included a literature review, field observations and in-depth interviews. Fieldwork was conducted at two mining locations in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Sixteen respondents representing key stakeholders: government, mining companies, mining associations and community, including illegal miners, were interviewed. The findings of the literature review were categorized as the push or pull factors within the topics, and field observations verified the literature review results regarding Indonesia. Interview data were analyzed using content analysis methods. A structural diagram of the actors and causal loop diagrams among the determinants of illegal gold mining was created and interpreted.FindingsA complex activity process and structure were revealed involving a range of actors. Politicians, government officials and law enforcement authorities added the complexity to the structure. Six main determinants of persistent illegal gold mining emerged: financial, low entry barrier, regulations and policies, supporting resources availability, politics and power and psychosocial factors.Practical implicationsThis study provides a deeper understanding for policymakers to consider when formulating policies on natural resources, and insights for mining companies to minimize conflicts with the community.Originality/valueThe study contributes to our knowledge of the complex structure and main determinants of illegal gold mining in Indonesia, which supports efforts to curtail this illegal activity.

Unintended effects of illegal economic activities: Illegal gold mining and malaria

Illegal economic activities are not only associated with higher levels of violent crime, they may also increase unforeseen risks and cause other negative unintended consequences for populations. This paper investigates the causal effects of illegal gold mining on malaria incidence. For this purpose, I employ unique Colombian satellite data with the location of illegal gold mines matched to municipal governmental health reports on the number of malaria cases. To identify causal effects, I use preexisting geochemical gold anomalies as an instrumental variable for illegal gold production. I find positive and large effects of illegal gold mining on malaria incidence. My estimates suggest that when an area containing illegal gold mines increases by 1 hectare, the annual parasite index for malaria increases by 1.04 cases per 100,000 inhabitants.

Geoindicadores aplicados al estudio de los efectos ambientales de la explotación de oro aluvial en la cuenca baja del río Quito, Chocó (Colombia)

Se realizó la formulación y evaluación preliminar de geoindicadores físicos, químicos y mineralógicos en la cuenca del río Quito, localizada en el Chocó Biogeográfico, una de las regiones más húmedas y biodiversas del planeta. El objeto del estudio consistió en reconocer los cambios inducidos por la minería ilegal de oro de aluvión sobre el medio natural, por medio de la caracterización de sedimentos, suelos y aguas. Los minerales y los productos de meteorización, que se liberan junto con el oro durante la extracción, podrían actuar como vehículos para el transporte de metales potencialmente tóxicos, entre ellos el mercurio, en el medio acuoso. En este trabajo se identificaron los minerales que componen los sedimentos activos, los suelos y los materiales en suspensión en las zonas afectadas por minería ilegal de oro, base para entender la movilidad de los metales en el sistema hidrológico. Las actividades extractivas afectan los suelos y sedimentos en las terrazas aluviales, generando erosión y aumento del transporte de sedimentos; modificando el funcionamiento del sistema hídrico, abatiendo el nivel freático y en consecuencia generando nuevas zonas de oxidación que aumentan la intensidad de la alteración, tanto de los minerales primarios como de las arcillas, disminuyendo la cristalinidad de las últimas. En este proceso se liberan hierro y aluminio, y en menor proporción sulfatos y metales. El aumento en la acidez en el medio acuoso produce agregación de coloides en los suelos y floculación de arcillas, que forman pseudo-partículas de tamaño limo. Los cambios inducidos por la actividad extractiva se observan tanto en cortos periodos, como años después del cese de la intervención extractiva, sin embargo, factores como la alta pluviosidad pueden diluir los efectos químicos y dificultar su detección. Se plantea el empleo de geoindicadores para el monitoreo de los procesos fisicoquímicos en aguas y sólidos suspendidos que viajan por el río como consecuencia de la extracción de oro aluvial. La meta es que los resultados del monitoreo, a mediano plazo, sirvan de base para proponer medidas de prevención y de mitigación de los impactos ambientales entendiendo la dinámica geoquímica natural de estos geoecosistemas, con la sobreimposición de los efectos de las actividades extractivas.

Mercury contamination of soil and water media from different illegal artisanal small-scale gold mining operations (galamsey)

Environmental media contamination with mercury, because of illegal artisanal small-scale gold mining (popularly called galamsey), is a major concern in Ghana; yet specific details as to how such contaminations are influenced or distributed across different galamsey operations have been lacking. We monitored mercury levels across nine different galamsey operations (Washing Board, Washing Plant, Anwona, Dig and Wash, Dredging, Underground Abandoned Shaft, Underground Sample Pit, Chamfi and Mill House) in three hotspot assemblies (Tarkwa Nsuaem, Amenfi East and Prestea Huni Valley) of the Western Region of Ghana. Triplicate samples each of background soil, surface water/drainage, slurry/sludge and galamsey waste materials (totaling 160) were obtained and analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) to determine total Hg concentrations. From the comparison of mean ranked concentration of mercury, using the Kruskal-Wallis Test, it was realized that the observed differences in ranking was significant for all four environmental media considered. Thus, the poor handling, usage and disposal of mercury from the different galamsey activities did result in elevation of harmful quantities of mercury into the environment. Overall, the highest median value obtained for mercury was recorded at the Mill House galamsey sites and within slurry/sludge medium. This was followed by Chamfi, Washing Board, Washing Plant, Anwona, Dig and Wash and Dredging in descending order, with the Underground Abandoned Shaft and Underground Sample Pit galamsey types recording values below detection limit. In terms of their contribution to mercury contamination to the environment, Mill House, Chamfi, Anwona, Washing Board and Washing Plant galamsey types recorded the highest mean rankings. Overall, key priority information required for influencing reclamation and cleanup policy decisions for mercury, for the many affected wastelands across the country, can be derived from this paper.

Biodiversity Protection from the Impact of Illegal Gold Mining for Sustainability

Biodiversity protection as the ecosystem formation component that supports the process of life is highly needed to take into account. Several previous studies show that biodiversity in Gorontalo is decreased that it will endanger other biodiversities in this region if this urgent issue is not immediately resolved. One of the solutions is through cross science. The objective of this study is to describe biodiversity and Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) along with the needs to optimize the functions of law in protecting biodiversity. This study was conducted by referring to previous studies, so that secondary data were used. It also employed an interview section in order to support the secondary data mentioned previously. Further, the data were analyzed using a qualitative descriptive analysis based on several relevant statutory norms.

Conservation Challenges and Causes of Wildlife Habitat Change in Kafta Sheraro National Park, Northwestern Tigray, Ethiopia

Aims: Assess the major conservation challenges and causes of wildlife habitat changes in Kafta Sheraro National Park.
 Study Design: This study was investigated based on a questionnaire survey, focus group discussion, and field observation.
 Place and Duration of Study: Kafta Sheraro National Park, Northwest Ethiopia (from October 2016 to March 2017).
 Methodology: The collected data were analyzed using SPSS, descriptive statistics analysis such as Frequency, percentages, Chi-square (χ²) test and P- values were used. Eleven villages were selected based on proximity to the national park. A total of 460 household heads were interviewed.
 Results: The result of the study indicated 385 (83.7%) of respondents were mixed farming, while 57 (12.6%) livestock rearing and 17 (3.7%) other business activities were engaged. Agricultural expansion 131 (28.5%), livestock grazing 113 (24.6%), deforestation 68 (14.8%), forest fire 57 (12.4%), illegal gold mining 26 (5.7%) and hunting 24 (5.2%) were the major problems of the park. Among the respondents, lack of community awareness 161 (35.0%), followed by lack of patrolling and monitoring 120(26.1%), lack of law enforcement, 95 (20.7%), issue of a boundary 30 (6.5%), and lack of security 13 (2.8%) were the main causes for properly wildlife conservation and management.
 Conclusions: The human, livestock and wildlife interactions will continue to destroy the park. Unless urgent management action is taken to solve the problems through full participation from the local people. Therefore, stakeholders should work together and displace agricultural activities out of wildlife habitat through commitment and introduce community-based conservation approaches.