Yaupon Research Articles

Preliminary vegetational changes in frequently burned and unburned upland pine-hardwood forests at Cook’s Branch Conservancy in Montgomery County, Texas, U.S.A.

Vegetational changes over a 6-year period (2012 to 2017) were recorded in upland pine – hardwood forests on Cook’s Branch Conservancy (CBC) in Montgomery County, Texas, using permanent vegetation monitoring plots as a basis for following future vegetational changes. Cook’s Branch Conservancy is a 2,160-hectare preserve purchased by George and Cynthia Mitchell in 1964 and is now part of a conservation program operated by the Cynthia and George Mitchell Foundation. Plots sampled for this study include eight Fire Monitoring Handbook vegetation plots located in upland forests over sandy soils including four plots located in frequently burned stands (11 times since 2002) and four plots located in stands that have not been burned in decades (20+ years). Data collected confirm significant changes to vegetational structure in frequently burned forests compared to similar habitats that are unburned. Prior to initiation of prescribed burning in 2001, habitat conditions and species composition was similar in stands surrounding all eight plots sampled. The overstory tree structure of all eight plots sampled is similar in basal area, canopy cover, and in species composition. The number of midstory trees is less in frequently burned plots, however, frequently burned plots possess a much greater number of seedlings. At the shrub level, Callicarpa americana and Ilex vomitoria represented 97.7% of total stems in the frequently burned plots, with Callicarpa americana stems count increasing in frequently burned plots, suggesting the species is pyrophytic. Additionally, diversity of herbaceous species was higher in frequently burned plots vs unburned plots. Visually, the frequently burned forest is open in the understory, while the unburned forest is dense with woody understory vegetation making it difficult to traverse on foot.

Thicketized oak woodlands reduce groundwater recharge

Woodlands and pastures across the Post Oak Savannas (POS) in Texas have been undergoing thicketization over the last century via encroachment by understory shrubs such as Yaupon (Ilex decidua, Ilex vomitoria) and expansion of eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana). Because a large part of POS overlies the Carrizo-Wilcox (CW) aquifer – the third most important aquifer in Texas, there is a strong incentive to identify opportunities to increase groundwater recharge through land management. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the influence of thicketization of post oak (Quercus stellata) stands on deep drainage (DD) in POS. We achieved this by, a) applying chloride mass balance on soil cores, and b) simultaneously monitoring soil moisture in a woodland pasture setting in POS. Four sites representing different vegetation covers were identified for sampling: 1) a thicketized oak woodland paired with an adjacent open site, 2) a woodland mosaic, 3) a pasture and 4) a pine-oak stand paired with an adjacent open site. A total of 24 soil cores to the depth of 260 cm were collected and (soil) pore water chloride concentrations at multiple depths were measured. Soil moisture was monitored at 21 locations, to the depth of 140–260 cm using a neutron moisture meter. Negligible DD was estimated in the thicketized woodland, whereas most open locations recorded 3–18 cm/year and the woodland mosaic 0–1 cm of DD. Soil moisture data, collected from Jul-2020 to Jun-2021 also suggested higher deep drainage fluxes under open areas – with occurrence of sub-surface saturation only under the open areas and never under the woodlands. These results suggest that the thicketization in oak savannas is substantially reducing groundwater recharge. Given the extent of thicketized oak savannas across United States, this could be impacting water budgets and groundwater recharge rates on regional scales.

First Record of the Invasive Poneracantha triangularis (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Georgia (USA)

The ant Poneracantha triangularis (Mayr) has a native range that extends from Costa Rica to northern Argentina (MacGown and Wetterer 2012, Psyche 2012: 1–4). The first North American record for this distinctive species was from Florida in 1985 (Deyrup et al. 1989, Fla. Entomol. 72: 91–101; as Gnamptogenys aculeaticoxae (Santschi)). Most literature refers to this species as G. triangularis, but a recent phylogenetic analysis (Camacho et al. 2022, Insect Syst. Divers. 6: 1–20) resurrected the genus Poneracantha from synonomy to include the species previously contained in the Gnamptogenys rostrata group (sensu Lattke 1995, J. Hymenopt. Res. 4: 137–193). Poneracantha triangularis subsequently has been reported from Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, and South Carolina (MacGown and Forster 2005, Entomol. News 116: 61–74; MacGown and Wetterer 2012; Wang et al. 2021, Trans. Am. Entomol. Soc. 147: 819–825), but the current record is the first for the state of Georgia.On 2 May 2022, I conducted a field experiment on a colony of the invasive ant Pheidole obscurithorax Naves. The site was a foundation bed, planted with occasional yaupon hollies (Ilex vomitoria Aiton), along the southeastern side of the Education Building on Georgia Southern University's Statesboro campus. The bed was almost entirely covered with a thick layer of pine straw, except for three patches of bare dirt, roughly 1 m2 each, where the experiment was being conducted. During the course of the experiment, I observed individuals of an unfamiliar species of ant occasionally wandering along the edge of the bed. I eventually collected four specimens and later identified them as P. triangularis. Subsequent visits to the site failed to locate either a nest or additional workers, most likely due to the thick layer of pine straw combined with the small colonies (80–150 workers; Lattke 1990, Acta Terramaris 2: 1–47) that characterize this species.Poneracantha triangularis is one of two ectatommine ant species known from north of Mexico; the other is Gnamptogenys hartmani (Wheeler). Both species are easily recognized by the deep grooves that cover their entire head and body. Poneracantha triangularis workers are dark brown, 5 mm total length, and possess two small spines on the posterolateral corners of the propodeum (Figs. 1, 2). In living specimens, the apex of the gaster points downward and somewhat anteriorly in a manner superficially similar to Proceratium spp. (A.W.H. pers. obs.). Gnamptogenys hartmani, whose known U.S. distribution is limited to Texas and Louisiana, is noticeably smaller than P. triangularis (3.5–4 mm total length), pale reddish orange, lacks propodeal spines, and based on photographs does not direct the apex of its gaster anteriorly.Given the wide distribution of P. triangularis throughout the southeastern United States, its occurrence in Georgia is not surprising. In its introduced range, the species has been recorded from a wide range of habitats, but despite its distinctive appearance is seldom encountered.Poneracantha triangularis is a specialized predator on millipedes. In the laboratory, P. triangularis is especially fond of the invasive Asian millipede Oxidus gracilis (Koch), which is abundant on the Statesboro campus. Like many millipedes, O. gracilis defends itself against predators with a foul-smelling cocktail of toxic chemicals, including hydrogen cyanide (Taira et al. 2003, Appl. Entomol. Zool. 38: 401–404). These defenses, however, are apparently ineffective against P. triangularis, which has been recorded attacking O. gracilis in the field and can survive for hours in cyanide killing jars that killed other ants within a few minutes (Lattke 1990). Poneracantha triangularis workers emit an odor similar to that of O. gracilis (Wang et al. 2021), suggesting that this ant can not only tolerate the millipede's chemical weapons but perhaps also co-opt them for its own protection.Although P. triangularis is an invasive species (i.e., introduced by humans to a new area, from which it has subsequently spread; Simberloff 2013, Invasive Species: What Everyone Needs to Know; Oxford University Press, Oxford, England), its apparent scarcity and specialized diet suggest that it is not likely to become a serious pest, as MacGown and Wetterer (2012) and Wang et al. (2021) have noted.

Selecting and Assessing Underutilized Trees for Diverse Urban Forests: A Participatory Research Approach

Urban forests provide critical environmental benefits, but the resilience of these socio-ecological systems to stresses like pest and disease outbreaks relies on tree health and diversity. Despite this, low species diversity continues to be a challenge in urban forest management. Using a participatory research approach in central Florida (United States), we selected and tested underutilized native tree species (Celtis laevigata Willd., Ilex vomitoria Aiton, Taxodium ascendens Brongn., Ulmus alata Michx., and Viburnum obovatum Walter) in two urban settings (streetscape and park) in four communities (total n = 200). Our collaborative process was organized into five steps, including a 2-year monitoring period to assess mortality and health through establishment. At the end of the trial, 156 trees survived with annual mortality rates differing by species and plot type. Taxodium ascendens had the highest annual mortality of the five species trialed. Overall, U. alata and V. obovatum showed the greatest potential in central Florida urban settings. Our tree selection process can guide others who want to create forward-thinking and diverse planting lists. Furthermore, this project demonstrates that co-production of knowledge involving members of local municipalities, practitioners, and researchers can be an effective strategy for selecting and testing underutilized tree species.

Nest site selection of White-tailed Hawks (Geranoaetus albicaudatus) on Texas barrier islands

The distribution of the White-tailed Hawk (Geranoaetus albicaudatus) in the United States is restricted to the prairies and savannas of the Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas. Although listed as a state threatened species, it remains one of the least studied raptors in North America. It appears to reach high densities on some Texas barrier islands despite the island vegetation communities being structurally simple and providing few nesting substrates. We compared vegetation and landscape characteristics for sets of White-tailed Hawk nest sites and random sites on 3 Texas barrier islands (Matagorda, Mustang, and North Padre) representing a gradient of low to high human presence and impact. We constructed model sets consisting of vegetation and landscape features measured at a random subsample of nest sites and random sites, then assessed model sets with logistic regression. Our best constructed model correctly differentiated 83% of nest sites from random sites on Matagorda Island, 70% on Mustang Island, and 50% on North Padre Island. Overall, it appears that the structure of nest substrates was important to White-tailed Hawk nest-site selection: shrubs categorized as densely structured with or without thorns accounted for 78% of nest substrates compared to only 13% of paired, random potential substrates. The most frequently selected nest substrates overall were yaupon (Ilex vomitoria; 43%) and Macartney rose (Rosa bracteata; 24%). If White-tailed Hawks are to be conserved on the barrier islands, a balance will need to be found between continued anthropogenic development, maintenance of habitat patches, and availability of suitable nesting substrates.

Ceremony, Medicine, Caffeinated Tea: Unearthing the Forgotten Faces of the North American Stimulant Yaupon (Ilex vomitoria)

AbstractYaupon (the unfortunately named Ilex vomitoria) is a holly commonly used as yard décor in the southeast United States, but many North Americans will be surprised to learn that it is the source of a stimulant tea that has been in continuous use for nearly a millennium. Yaupon is more than a drink; it is a window into questions of identity, community belonging, and how the New World was inserted into the global economy. From Cabeza de Vaca's sixteenth-century brush with the beverage, yaupon has iterated between ceremony, medicine, and caffeinated tea as inhabitants of North America—Indigenous, enslaved, and settler colonial inhabitants of North America—have harnessed the leaf's properties to different, culturally situated aims. This article traces narratives, recipes, and medical descriptions of yaupon from contact to the present, and compares these against material and archeological records to explore differences between settler and extractive colonial encounters with Indigenous psychoactive substances (and thus indigeneity). The story of yaupon reveals contests between regimes of knowledge, the political economy of colonialisms, and the fraught intersections of identity and cuisine. Despite abundant ethnographic, documentary, and scientific evidence to the contrary, the scientific and medical literature long mislabeled yaupon as emetic. This raises questions about how knowledge is transferred and how scientific authority is constructed. I argue that indigeneity, race, and class have steered how yaupon has been understood, and help to explain why a popular caffeinated product waned at a time when the use of stimulants was increasing, and “proletarian hunger-killers” were on the rise.

Yaupon Psyllid Gyropsylla ilecis (Ashmead) (Insecta: Hemiptera: Aphalaridae)

The yaupon psyllid, Gyropsylla ilecis (Ashmead), is a native insect of the family Psyllidae, order Hemiptera (Figure 1). The insect is inconspicuous during most of the year, but the leaf galls it produces in spring are more easily observed. Nymphs feed on the new growth of yaupon holly, Ilex vomitoria, causing leaves to deform into a protective gall. The yaupon holly, native to the southeastern United States, is used as an ornamental tree or shrub and has also been used for centuries to produce a caffeinated, tea-like beverage. The yaupon psyllid is considered a minor aesthetic pest due to the unsightly presence of galls and some stunting of twigs. However, yaupon holly is rarely severely damaged by this insect.

Yaupon Holly Culture and Pest Management for Tea Production and Ornamental Use


 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yaupon holly, Ilex vomitoria Aiton, is an evergreen woody plant native to the southeastern United States. The species is widely used as a landscape ornamental plant because it tolerates a wide range of soil and environmental conditions, is available in various forms, and attracts wildlife, especially native birds. Recently, there has been a resurgence of interest in cultivating the plant for the caffeinated beverages that can be made from its leaves. This 8-page fact sheet written by Matthew A. Borden, Mark A. Wilhelm, and Adam G. Dale and published by the UF/IFAS Entomology and Nematology Department provides a guide to managing yaupon holly and protecting it from pests. It will be useful to both commercial growers and homeowners interested in growing this beautiful and useful plant.https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in2199
 
 
 
 
 
 

Native and Edible Ornamental Plant Congeners Enhance Ecosystem Services Through Key Pest Avoidance and Multifunctionality in Residential Landscapes.

Tea scale, Fiorinia theae Green (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), has long been one of the most important pests of Ilex and Camellia plants, particularly in the southeastern United States. This exotic armored scale insect reduces host plant health and function, and often requires insecticide use, which poses risks to nontarget organisms. While the use of Ilex (Aquifoliales: Aquifoliaceae) and Camellia (Ericales: Theaceae) spp. as landscape ornamentals for aesthetic function is firmly established, we have a poor understanding of species-level susceptibility to F. theae. Additionally, two species, Ilex vomitoria Ait. and Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze are emerging tisane- and tea-producing commodities in the region, respectively. We propose that these consumable plants may be well-suited alternatives to their traditionally used ornamental congeners in residential landscapes where they may provide enhanced ecosystem services. However, the potential impact of key pests, like F. theae, on these species should be evaluated to anticipate pest pressure that may undermine or offset benefits. In this study, we examine six species within the known host range of tea scale, comparing nonnative I. cornuta Lindl. 'Dwarf Burford,' C. japonica L., C. sasanqua Thunb., and C. sinensis, along with native I. opaca Ait. and I. vomitoria. We found that plant species show a wide range of susceptibility to F. theae and associated damage, with the two native Ilex species and tea-producing C. sinensis displaying the least susceptibility. By reducing the impact of a key pest and considering other ecosystem service traits, these results may help guide more sustainable plant selection decisions where the goal is to integrate native and edible plants into residential landscapes.

Effect of biomass source on the physico-mechanical properties of polyurethane foam produced by microwave-assisted liquefaction

Different biomass sources (bamboo, rape straw, lignin, and Yaupon holly) were liquefied using microwave energy to produce biopolyols, which were then used to prepare biofoams without any further separation process. The results indicated that the content of hydroxyl groups in biopolyols derived from different biomass sources was sorted in descending order as rape straw, Yaupon holly, bamboo, and lignin. The rheological analysis demonstrated that the biopolyols were pseudoplastic, and the yield stress of biopolyols was remarkably increased with increasing biomass content. The compressive strength of polyurethane (PU) foam was rendered smaller by introducing biomass sources. Nevertheless, the biofoam obtained from biomass sources with higher hydroxyl groups content had better PU performance. In addition, the termite resistance performance of PU foam increased with the introduction of Yaupon holly, rape straw, and bamboo sources. Accordingly, the biofoams derived from the liquefaction of rape straw performed better than those from other biomass sources.

Chemical residue evidence in Leon Plain pottery from the Toyah phase (1300–1650 CE) in the American Southern Plains

Archaeological remains from the Toyah Phase (1300-1650 CE), prior to Spanish colonization of the American Southern Plains in central and south Texas, suggest that foraging indigenous peoples maintained a feasting economy. Mind-altering beverages, such as caffeinated or alcoholic drinks, are a common attraction of feasts worldwide and throughout human history. Fifty-four sherds of Leon Plain ware from six archaeological sites were chemically analyzed using ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Six samples contained biomarkers suggestive of caffeinated beverage(s)—either black drink, Yaupon Holly (Ilex vomitoria) ceremonial tea, or chocolate, derived from cacao (Theobroma cacao or bicolor). Three of those six samples had duplicate results over three trials. Six different samples contained succinic and tartaric acid, sometimes associated with grape wine, but no samples maintained those results over two trials. These results suggest that Leon Plain may have sometimes been used to contain mind-altering substances, such as black drink.

Preliminary Flammability Assessment of Sea Buckthorn from The Netherlands Compared to Known Flammable Shrubs of the Southern and Western US

Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) is a common coastal species in The Netherlands that potentially burns with extreme energy levels. In this region of Europe that is experiencing increases in wildfire events, the need to gain a greater understanding of energy released when this species burns will improve fire behavior predictions. The objective of this study was to conduct an initial investigation into the foliage flammability of sea buckthorn to a common southern United States native shrub known for its flammability, yaupon (Ilex vomitoria), and two common dominant shrub species in California chaparral, chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum), and manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.). Flammability parameters were evaluated using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and oxygen bomb calorimetry to estimate relative spontaneous ignition temperature (RSIT), gas-phase maximum mass loss rate (GP-MMLR), gas-phase combustion duration (GP-CD), volatile matter%, fixed carbon%, ash%, and net heat content (NHC). Sea buckthorn exhibited similar ignitability ( GPMMLR) to yaupon. Sea buckthorn and yaupon shared similar NHC values and subsequent fire behavior outputs. Proximate analysis for VM% and FC% were varied, but low ash% values correlated with slightly lower RSIT’s for sea buckthorn and chamise. Anecdotal information from a 2019 prescribed burn along the coast of The Netherlands highlighted significant fire behavior, and shows similarities with these species in two North American ecosystems.

Native Woody Plants of the Southern United States with Weedy or Invasive Tendencies: A Review of Common Offenders

Five woody species, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria), black cherry (Prunus serotina), snailvine [Cocculus carolinus (formerly Menispermum carolinum or Epibaterium carolinum)], and southern waxmyrtle [Morella cerifera (formerly Myrica cerifera)], are all native to Oklahoma and nearby states. They all have varying levels of use in and importance to the United States nursery industry. Past natural habitats and where these plants have spread to date, either intentionally or naturally, are discussed here. These native plants have migrated to or have become increasingly dominant in regions of the continental United States because of prolific fruit loads dispersed by birds and mammals, anthropogenic disturbances, overgrazing pastures, and certain species’ tolerance of environmental extremes. Potential control measures include chemical applications, timely cultivation, heightened awareness of grazing practices, and prescribed burning.

LC-MS Metabolomics and Chemotaxonomy of Caffeine-Containing Holly ( Ilex) Species and Related Taxa in the Aquifoliaceae.

Ilex species have been consumed traditionally as medicinal teas worldwide. Though the presence of caffeine has been reported in several species, little is known about secondary-metabolite diversity within and among these taxa. Leaf samples of Ilex guayusa, Ilex paraguariensis, and Ilex vomitoria were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and comparative metabolite profiling with Ilex cassine and other Ilex species to identify chemotaxonomic markers, delimit species, and provide an assessment of chemodiversity. Purine alkaloids were detected and quantified in I. guayusa, I. paraguariensis, and I. vomitoria. Reports of caffeine for I. cassine were not corroborated, suggesting that I. vomitoria was the traditional source of the Native North American tea yaupon. The tetramethyluric acid, theacrine, was detected for the first time in the genus Ilex as a low-level chemotaxonomic marker in I. vomitoria samples. Chemotaxonomy and metabolomics support a close relationship for caffeine-containing Ilex species.

Health Benefits of Bioactive Compounds from the Genus Ilex, a Source of Traditional Caffeinated Beverages.

Tea and coffee are caffeinated beverages commonly consumed around the world in daily life. Tea from Camellia sinensis is widely available and is a good source of caffeine and other bioactive compounds (e.g., polyphenols and carotenoids). Other tea-like beverages, such as those from the genus Ilex, the large-leaved Kudingcha (Ilex latifolia Thunb and Ilex kudingcha C.J. Tseng), Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil), Yaupon Holly (Ilex vomitoria), and Guayusa (Ilex guayusa Loes) are also traditional drinks, with lesser overall usage, but have attracted much recent attention and have been subjected to further study. This review summarizes the distribution, composition, and health benefits of caffeinated beverages from the genus Ilex. Plants of this genus mainly contain polyphenols and alkaloids, and show diverse health benefits, which, as well as supporting their further popularization as beverages, may also lead to potential applications in the pharmaceutical or nutraceutical industries.

Thermal Stability Analysis of Polyurethane Foams Made from Microwave Liquefaction Bio-Polyols with and Without Solid Residue

The thermal stabilities of bio-based polyurethane (PU) foams made from liquefaction bio-polyols with and without solid residue were analyzed by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR). Yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria) was subjected to microwave liquefaction at different reaction temperatures to characterize the variations of bio-polyol and solid residue with temperature. The results indicated that the solid residue decreased when the temperature increased from 120 °C to 160 °C, while it increased slightly when further increasing temperature to 200 °C. The hydroxyl number decreased with increased reaction temperature. The TGA of PU foams demonstrated that the use of liquefaction bio-polyol with and without solid residue to produce PU foam increased the thermal stability of biofoams as compared with petro-based foam. Moreover, the presence of solid residue in bio-polyol enhanced the thermal stability of biofoams. The FTIR analysis of PU foams suggested that the solid residue had a negative effect on the formation of urethane bonds.

Biobased polyurethane foam insulation from microwave liquefaction of woody underbrush

Yaupon holly is one of the most widespread woody underbrush species in the southeastern United States, and it can undermine forest health and safety due to its biofuel-like nature during catastrophic wildfires. Yaupon holly was subjected to microwave liquefaction to produce biobased polyurethane (PU) foam insulation. Liquefaction parameters were optimized and summarized as follows: 1) particle size was controlled in the range of 16- to 40- mesh; 2) both the ratios of glycerol to ethylene glycol and liquid to solid were set at 3:1; 3) the reaction process was conducted at 160 °C for 10 min and catalyzed by 1.5% sulfuric acid. The optimal liquefaction conversion yield was 94.9%. The Fourier transform infrared spectra (FTIR) indicated the successful liquefaction and dissolution of wood essential components, i.e. hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. The optimal liquefaction product with solid residue was used directly to produce biofoams. With an increased isocyanate index, the thermal insulation properties, mechanical properties, and thermal stability of biofoams increased. Therefore, a promising biobased PU foam was obtained at an isocyanate index of 150. The density, thermal conductivity, Young’s modulus, and compressive stress of the promising biofoam were 18.5 kg·m-3, 0.033 W·m-1·K-1, 176.7 kPa, and 15.4 kPa, respectively.

Symphylus caribbeanus Kirkaldy (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae): New Distribution and Host-Plant Records of a Seldom-Collected Shield Bug

Florida, Georgia, and Texas are the only previous records for the mainly Neotropical shield bug Symphylus caribbeanus Kirkaldy in the United States. The record for Georgia, however, is based on a misidentification of Stethaulax marmoratus (Say). The first valid record for Georgia and first record for South Carolina extend the distribution of Sy. caribbeanus based on recent collecting; new state records based on museum specimens are Alabama, Mississippi and North Carolina. Nymphs and adults were observed in South Carolina on fruits of yaupon (Ilex vomitoria; Aquifoliaceae) and in Florida on fruits of Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius; Anacardiaceae); an adult was taken in Georgia on fruits of wax myrtle (Morella cerifera; Myricaceae). Most previously recorded plant associations might not be true hosts that support nymphal development. Although the relatively late report of Sy. caribbeanus from the United States (1914 in Florida) suggests an adventive status, this scutellerid might be a native, but long unrecognized species of the Floridian fauna. The later report from southern Texas (1977) might represent range expansion from northern Mexico. Images of nymphs (instars IV, V) and adults of the color morphs observed in South Carolina are presented.

Cautionary tales on the identification of caffeinated beverages in North America

In recent years several studies have attempted to understand the use of caffeinated beverages in North America before the coming of Europeans using absorbed residues. These studies have focused on the two key plant sources of caffeine in North America: Theobroma cacao (cacao) and Ilex vomitoria (yaupon holly). The authors initiated a study to explore the possibility that one or both plants were used at the Mississippian period (900–1600 CE) center of Etowah in northern Georgia. In the process, a series of problems with methodologies in use were revealed. Key among those were limitations on the methods used to identify ancient caffeinated beverage residues, distinguish them from modern contamination, and differentiate residues made by each plant. In this paper we explore what our data from the Etowah site reveal about methodologies currently in use and make suggestions for future studies of residues created by caffeinated beverages in North America.

Effect of Common Species of Florida Landscaping Plants on the Efficacy of Attractive Toxic Sugar Baits Against Aedes albopictus.

Attractive toxic sugar bait (ATSB) was applied to 5 different types of commonly found plants in landscaping of northeastern Florida. The ATSB applications were assessed for possible plant effects and preference against Aedes albopictus in semifield evaluations. Positive and negative controls consisted of plants sprayed with attractive sugar bait (no toxicant) and plants with nothing applied. Bioassays were conducted on stems with leaf clippings and on full plants to assess any difference in mosquito mortality on the different plants. Plants utilized in these evaluations were Indian hawthorne, Yaupon holly, Japanese privet, Loropetalum ruby, and podocarpus. In both assays, no significant difference was observed in the effect of ATSBs on adult female mosquitoes based on the type of plant. ATSB could be applied to common landscape plants for adult Ae. albopictus control.