If-then Plans Research Articles

Strategic automation of emotion regulation.

As implementation intentions are a powerful self-regulation tool for thought and action (meta-analysis by P. M. Gollwitzer & P. Sheeran, 2006), the present studies were conducted to address their effectiveness in regulating emotional reactivity. Disgust- (Study 1) and fear- (Study 2) eliciting stimuli were viewed under 3 different self-regulation instructions: the goal intention to not get disgusted or frightened, respectively, this goal intention furnished with an implementation intention (i.e., an if-then plan), and a no-self-regulation control group. Only implementation-intention participants succeeded in reducing their disgust and fear reactions as compared to goal-intention and control participants. In Study 3, electrocortical correlates (using dense-array electroencephalography) revealed differential early visual activity in response to spider slides in ignore implementation-intention participants, as reflected in a smaller P1. Theoretical and applied implications of the present findings for emotion regulation via implementation intentions are discussed.

Should implementation intentions interventions be implemented in obesity prevention: the impact of if-then plans on daily physical activity in Dutch adults.

BackgroundForming implementation intentions (specifying when, where and how to act) has been proposed as a potentially effective and inexpensive intervention, but has mainly been studied in controlled settings for straightforward behaviors.PurposeTo examine if forming implementation intentions (II) could be used in large-scale, population-based interventions that aim to promote more complex and clinically relevant behavior change, we tested the impact of different II on increasing daily physical activity (PA) aimed at weight maintenance among 709 Dutch adults.MethodsAt T0, participants were randomly allocated to a control group or to form II for 1) a prescribed action (walking), 2) self-selected activities, 3) self-selected activities and repeat making these II two times. All participants were asked to increase PA by at least two hours a week (15–20 minutes per day). Post-tests took place two weeks (response 85%), three months (response 78%) and six months (response 79%) post-intervention.ResultsNo main effects of II formation on BMI or physical activity were found. Intention to increase physical activity moderated the effects of repeated II, but not of the other II conditions. Forming repeated II had a positive effect on total PA and number of active days for respondents with strong intentions.ConclusionImplementation intention interventions may not yet be ready for implementation on its own for large-scale obesity prevention in the general public. Future research should test strategies for optimal II formation in both initiating and maintaining behavioral change.Trial registrationISRCTN81041724

Why do people fail to turn good intentions into action? The role of executive control processes in the translation of healthy eating intentions into action in young Scottish adults

BackgroundDespite the significant health benefits associated with eating healthily, diet is extremely difficult to change, with the majority of people who intend to eat more healthily failing to do so. Recent evidence has suggested that the ability to turn intentions into actions may be related to individual differences in one facet of executive control – cognitive inhibition (i.e. the ability to inhibit irrelevant information and suppress prepotent responses). The present study investigates the role of this and other executive processes (inhibition, task switching, planning and cognitive flexibility) in the translation of dietary intentions into action. In addition, as the literature suggests that weak executive control may be associated with hyper-responsivity to cues to action, the role of executive processes in susceptibility to environmental food cues and responses to If-Then plans designed to cue intended behaviour are investigated.MethodsFuture intentions about consumption of fruits and vegetables and snack foods will be measured in a sample of young adults. Actual consumption of the target foods will be recorded with computerised diaries over a subsequent 3-day period. Performance on a battery of established executive control tasks (Go-NoGo, Tower task, Verbal Fluency task and Trail-Making) will be used to predict the discrepancy between intended and actual dietary behaviour. In addition, executive control scores will be used to predict reported susceptibility to environmental food cues and benefit derived from the use of 'If-Then plans' designed to cue intended behaviour.DiscussionOur findings will add to understanding about the role of executive control in translating intentions into actions and may demonstrate potential for future public health interventions. If participants with weak executive control are found to be less likely to eat as they intend than those with strong executive control, then interventions that reduce the load on these executive processes may increase chances of successful intention-behaviour translation. If those with weak executive control are found to be more responsive to cues to action they may also benefit more from the use of If-Then plans designed to cue intended behaviour.

The question-behavior effect from an action control perspective

The question-behavior effect is discussed by taking an action control perspective. With respect to the determinants of the effect, it is asked whether its strength is dependent on the features of the behaviors at issue (e.g., difficulty), how the question targets the critical behaviors (e.g., in terms of attitudes or intentions, frequency or intensity), and in which context it is asked. With respect to the psychological processes, it is questioned whether the activation of positive implicit attitudes underlies the effect. Finally, to counter unwanted question-behavior effects on risky behaviors, an intervention treatment geared at blocking such effects is suggested that is based on the self-regulation of goal setting (by mental contrasting; Oettingen, 2000) and goal implementation (by forming if-then plans; Gollwitzer, 1999).

Implementation Intentions and Shielding Goal Striving From Unwanted Thoughts and Feelings

Forming an implementation intention or "if-then plan" promotes the attainment of different types of goals (Gollwitzer, 1999; Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006). So far, research on implementation intentions has focused on the initiation of goal striving, whereas the issue of shielding of ongoing goal striving has been largely neglected. In two field experiments concerned with dieting (Study 1) and athletic goals (Study 2), goal shielding was supported by implementation intentions geared at controlling potentially interfering inner states (i.e., cravings for junk food in Study 1, and disruptive thoughts, feelings, and physiological states in Study 2). In both experiments, forming if-then plans enhanced the rate of goal attainment. Thus, implementation intention formation can be used to promote the realization of desired outcomes not only by facilitating getting started with goal striving but also by preventing goal striving from straying off course.

Improving blood donor recruitment and retention: integrating theoretical advances from social and behavioral science research agendas

Increasing blood donor recruitment and retention is of key importance to transfusion services. Research within the social and behavioral science traditions has adopted separate but complementary approaches to addressing these issues. This article aims to review both of these types of literature, examine theoretical developments, identify commonalities, and offer a means to integrate these within a single intervention approach. The social and behavioral science literature on blood donor recruitment and retention focusing on theory, interventions, and integration is reviewed. The role of emotional regulation (anticipated anxiety and vasovagal reactions) is central to both the behavioral and the social science approaches to enhancing donor motivation, yet although intentions are the best predictor of donor behavior, interventions targeting enactment of intentions have not been used to increase donation. Implementation intentions (that is, if-then plans formed in advance of acting) provide a useful technique to integrate findings from social and behavioral sciences to increase donor recruitment and retention. After reviewing the literature, implementation intention formation is proposed as a technique to integrate the key findings and theories from the behavioral and social science literature on blood donor recruitment and retention.

Implementation Intentions Facilitate Response Inhibition in Children with ADHD

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with action control problems such as failure to inhibit inappropriate responses. Two studies investigated whether self-regulation by implementation intentions (if-then plans; Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493–503) facilitates response inhibition in children with ADHD. In Study 1, children with ADHD who furnished a suppression goal with implementation intentions improved inhibition of an unwanted response on a Go/No-Go task to the same level observed in children without ADHD. Study 2 showed that a combination of implementation intentions and psychostimulant medication resulted in the highest level of suppression performance in children with ADHD. Theoretical and applied implications of these results are discussed.

If–then planning modulates the P300 in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder have difficulties with tasks that require response inhibition. We measured electroencephalographic data of nonmedicated children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and control children in two conditions: (a) a neutral condition without a self-regulation strategy and (b) a condition that involved the making of if-then plans (i.e. 'If situation X is encountered, then I will perform the goal-directed behavior Y'). If-then plans improved response inhibition and increased the P300 in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder compared with the neutral condition. The present results encourage the application of self-regulation using if-then plans in addition or as an alternative to common medical therapy.

Implementation intentions, occupational stress, and the exercise intention-behavior relationship.

Many individuals intend to exercise, but fail to link this intention to behavior. The present study examined the impact of an implementation intention intervention (i.e., instructions to form specific if-then plans) on an exercise intention-behavior relationship among working adults who varied in reported occupational stress levels. Results indicated that implementation intentions backfired, such that participants who did not form an implementation intention exercised significantly more than participants who formed an implementation intention.

Implementation intentions and the willful pursuit of prosocial goals in negotiations

Three studies examined whether the self-regulation strategy of forming implementation intentions (i.e., if-then plans) facilitates the attainment of prosocial goals when a limited resource is to be distributed between two parties who hold adverse cognitive orientations. In three experiments, pairs of negotiators were assigned prosocial goals that either had to be supplemented with plans (if-then plans, Gollwitzer, 1999) on how to act on these goals or not. Experiment 1 used a mixed-frames negotiation paradigm in which one negotiation partner operated on a gain-frame, the other on a loss-frame. When participants had the prosocial goal to find fair agreements and furnished it with a respective if-then plan, unfair agreements in favor of the loss-frame negotiator no longer occurred. Experiment 2 used a same-frame negotiation paradigm, where both negotiation partners had either a loss or a gain-frame. When loss-frame pairs had furnished their prosocial goals to cooperate with the negotiation partner with a respective if-then plan, reduced profits as compared to gain-frame pairs of negotiators were no longer observed. In addition, negotiators who had formed implementation intentions were more likely to use the integrative negotiation strategy of logrolling (i.e., making greater concessions on low rather than high priority issues). Experiment 3 used a computer-mediated negotiation task in order to analyze the effects of prosocial goals and respective implementation intentions on the course of the negotiation. Again, implementation intentions facilitated the pursuit of prosocial goals in the face of adversity (i.e., loss frames) by use of the integrative negotiation strategy of logrolling. The present research adds a self-regulation perspective to the research on negotiation by pointing out that the effects of negotiation goals can be enhanced by furnishing them with respective plans (i.e., implementation intentions).

Open questions in implementation intention research

WEBB (THISVOLUME) CONSIDERS the making of if-then plans (i.e. implementation intentions such as 'If thewaiter asks me for my order, then I will choose a vegetarian dish and a non-alcoholic drink!') as a powerful self-regulation strategy that helps people to meet their goals of doing more good and less bad. He points to the comparative lack of success that is achieved when people restrict their self-regulation to the forming of mere goals (e.g. 'I want to eat more vegetables!' and 'I want to drink less alcohol!'). This common goal intention-behaviour gap is due to the fact that people often do not have access to the necessary skills, efforts, and opportunities, and that they often face conflicting behavioural tendencies exactly at that point in time when it were appropriate to act on the focal goal no matter whether these opposing forces originate from inside or outside, from chronic bad habits or pressing competing goals. Webb argues that explicating the implementation of one's goals should facilitate their attainment, in particular if this is done in the form of if-then plans (implementation intentions). This should be the case because of the following psychological mechanisms (Gollwitzer, 1993, 1999): the mental representation of the critical situational cues specified in the if-part of an implementation intention becomes highly activated and thus these cues are more easily recalled and detected, as well as more readily attended to. Moreover, in the presence of the critical cue, the initiation of the goal-directed response specified in the then-part becomes automated in the sense that it is now immediate, efficient (i.e. effortless), and no longer requires a conscious intent. In support of these ideas, Webb reports studies showing that goal attainment is generally facilitated when implementation intentions have been formed, and that implementation intention effects are particularly pronounced when goal attainment is difficult by itself or becomes difficult because of the interference of bad habits. He then describes experiments that allow attributing these beneficial effects to the postulated mechanisms (e.g. Aarts et al., 1999, for the heightened activation of the mental representation of specified cues; and Webb and Sheeran, under review, for the automation of the specified goal-directed response). Finally, Webb raises some open issues of implementation intention research. He asks intriguing questions of: (a) how the motivation to reach a given goal influences the effects of respective implementation intentions on actual goal attainment; (b) whether the formation ofmultiple if-then plans in the service of a given goal weakens implementation intention effects; and (c) whether there are individual difference variables that potentially modify implementation intention effects. In the following I will address these issues one by one.