Identifying Learning Disabilities Research Articles

The Effects of Tier 2 Intervention on the Mathematics Performance of First-Grade Students who are at Risk for Mathematics Difficulties

Responsiveness to Intervention (RtI) is recommended both as an essential step before identifying learning disabilities (LD) and as a mechanism for preventing learning difficulties. The use of evidence-based multi-tiered interventions is of critical importance when implementing RtI. This article presents the results of a study that examined the effects of Tier 2 intervention on the performance of first-grade students who were identified as at risk for mathematics difficulties. Participants included 161 (Tier 2, N = 42) first graders. Tier 2 students received 20-minute intervention booster lessons in number and operation skills and concepts for 23 weeks. Results showed a significant intervention effect on the Texas Early Mathematics Inventories-Progress Monitoring (TEMI-PM, University of Texas System/Texas Education Agency) total standard score.

Dynamic assessment of algebraic learning in predicting third graders' development of mathematical problem solving.

Dynamic assessment (DA) involves helping students learn a task and indexing responsiveness to that instruction as a measure of learning potential. The purpose of this study was to explore the utility of a DA of algebraic learning in predicting 3(rd) graders' development of mathematics problem solving. In the fall, 122 3(rd)-grade students were assessed on language, nonverbal reasoning, attentive behavior, calculations, word-problem skill, and DA. On the basis of random assignment, students received 16 weeks of validated instruction on word problems or received 16 weeks of conventional instruction on word problems. Then, students were assessed on word-problem measures proximal and distal to instruction. Structural equation measurement models showed that DA measured a distinct dimension of pretreatment ability and that proximal and distal word-problem measures were needed to account for outcome. Structural equation modeling showed that instruction (conventional vs. validated) was sufficient to account for math word-problem outcome proximal to instruction; by contrast, language, pretreatment math skill, and DA were needed to forecast learning on word-problem outcomes more distal to instruction. Findings are discussed in terms of responsiveness-to-intervention models for preventing and identifying learning disabilities.

Making “secondary intervention” work in a three-tier responsiveness-to-intervention model: findings from the first-grade longitudinal reading study of the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities

Responsiveness-to-intervention (RTI) is a method for both preventing and helping to identify learning disabilities. An important feature is its multi-tier structure: primary intervention (tier 1) refers to classroom instruction; secondary intervention (tier 2) usually involves more intensive pullout, small-group instruction; and tertiary intervention (tier 3) typically denotes most intensive special education. Despite RTI’s popularity and promise, there are many questions about how to implement it effectively and efficiently. So, in 2001, the Office of Special Education Programs in the U.S. Department of Education funded the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities to conduct two large-scale, field-based, longitudinal, and experimental RTI studies. Both studies, one in reading and one in math, were conducted at first grade, with annual follow up for 3 years in the reading study and 2 years in the math study. This article summarizes findings from the reading study, which was designed to answer three basic questions about RTI’s pivotal secondary intervention: Who should participate in it? What instruction should be conducted to decrease the prevalence of reading disabilities? How should responsiveness and non-responsiveness be defined?

Response to “Competing Views: A Dialogue on Response to Intervention”

Batsche, Kavale, and Kovaleski (this issue) have done an outstanding job of summarizing arguments for and against the use of response-to-intervention (RTI) procedures for identifying learning disabilities. In this response, we raise issues relevant to the concept of learning disabilities, the nature of problems associated with standard discrepancy-based identification procedures, and how RTI will ultimately be operationalized across a variety of academic domains. We express cautious optimism that RTI procedures will continue to be developed carefully and methodically and will ultimately lead to better methods for identifying and treating learning disabilities.

Selecting at-risk readers in first grade for early intervention: A two-year longitudinal study of decision rules and procedures.

Response to intervention (RTI) models for identifying learning disabilities rely on the accurate identification of children who, without Tier 2 tutoring, would develop reading disability (RD). This study examined 2 questions concerning the use of 1st-grade data to predict future RD: (a) Does adding initial word identification fluency (WIF) and 5 weeks of WIF progress-monitoring data (WIF-Level and WIF-Slope) to a typical 1st-grade prediction battery improve RD prediction? and (b) Can classification tree analysis improve the prediction accuracy compared to logistic regression? Four classification models based on 206 1st-grade children followed through the end of 2nd grade were evaluated. A combination of initial WIF, WIF-Level, and WIF-Slope and classification tree analysis improved prediction sufficiently to recommend their use with RTI.

Using Curriculum-Based Measurement to Monitor Reading Progress in Inclusive Elementary Settings

ABSTRACT This article describes the use of curriculum-based measurement, specifically oral reading fluency, as a tool for monitoring students' overall reading achievement. A brief overview of curriculum-based measurement is provided as well as a description of procedures for collecting and graphing data. A case study illustrates the application of curriculum-based measurement in an elementary-level classroom that includes a student with an identified learning disability in reading as well as several other students who are low achieving. Focus on Inclusion is edited by Michael E. Skinner.

Identifying Reading Disabilities by Responsiveness-to-Instruction: Specifying Measures and Criteria

First, we describe two types of assessment (problem solving and standard treatment protocol) within a “responsiveness-to-instruction” framework to identify learning disabilities. We then specify two necessary components (measures and classification criteria) to assess responsiveness-to-instruction, and present pertinent findings from two related studies. These studies involve databases at grades 1 and 2, which were analyzed to compare the soundness of alternative methods of assessing instructional responsiveness to identify reading disabilities. Finally, conclusions are drawn and future research is outlined to prospectively and longitudinally explore classification issues that emerged from our analyses.

Tower of London Test Performance in Children With Poor Arithmetic Skills

The Tower of London (TOL) has been used to assess executive functions in both children and adults with documented brain dysfunction. Like many other measures of executive function, it has not been widely used in the assessment of learning disabilities in children. However, if performance on the TOL discriminated among groups of children with different academic strengths and weaknesses, then it may be useful in identifying learning disability subtypes. The purpose of this study was to determine whether performance on the TOL would differ among 3 groups of children: those with arithmetic difficulties, those with reading difficulties, and those with no academic difficulties. The group with arithmetic difficulties exhibited significantly greater impairment on the TOL than either the group with reading difficulties or the group with no difficulties. The latter 2 groups performed similarly. The clinical utility of the TOL, as well as the relation between arithmetic deficits and executive functions, are discussed.

Treatment Validity as a Unifying Construct for Identifying Learning Disabilities

The purpose of this article is to revisit the issue of treatment validity as a framework for identifying learning disabilities. In 1995, an eligibility assessment process, rooted within a treatment validity model, was proposed that (a) examines the level of a student's performance as well as his/her responsiveness to instruction, (b) reserves judgment about the need for special education until the effects of individual student adaptations in the regular classroom have been explored, and (c) prior to placement, verifies that a special education program enhances learning. We review the components of this model and reconsider the advantages and disadvantages of verifying a special education program's effectiveness prior to placement.

Test-Retest Reliability of the Motor-Free Visual Perception Test Revised (MVPT-R) in Children with and Without Learning Disabilities

The Motor-Free Visual Perceptual Test Revised (MVPT-R) is an updated edition of the original test with the addition of four items and normative data for 9-11-year-old children. Test-retest reliability studies on the MVPT-R are not reported. The purpose of this paper is to report the test-retest reliability of the MVPT-R in children with and without learning disabilities. The MVPT-R was administered to 38 children with identified learning disabilities and 37 control children (aged 7-10 years) on two separate occasions within a 2.5 week window of time. Inter-rater reliability agreement between examiners was 99%. Intra-class correlations for perceptual quotient scores ranged from .63-.79 and perceptual age scores ranged from .69-.86. Pearson product moment correlations for perceptual quotient scores ranged from .70-.80 and perceptual age scores ranged from .77-.87. Results suggest moderate test-retest reliability for the MVPT-R with more stability in visual perceptual scores for children with learning disabilities. This information will be helpful for therapists using the MVPT-R as a descriptive measure for children.

A Reconceptualization of Learning Disabilities via a Self-Organizing Systems Paradigm

A dilemma exists regarding the interpretation of learning disabilities. A self-organizing systems (SOS) paradigm suggests widespread, diffuse outcomes, whereas a specific learning disability concept suggests more localized dysfunction. There may be very good reason to doubt the veridicality of the concept of a specific learning disability, not because the construct of learning disabilities itself is a frivolous concept, as some have held, but because the biological or neurological events that underlie a learning disability do not remain focal and constrained only to specific dysfunction. It is important to know whether an identified learning disability remains contained or whether processing disorders might be found in other areas. The assessment profiles of school-age children identified with nonverbal learning disabilities (NLD), assumed to have primarily right-hemispheric brain dysfunctions, and children with language-based learning disabilities (LLD), assumed to have primarily left-hemispheric brain dysfunctions, were examined to explore learning disabilities using an SOS paradigm. The pilot study reported here is used as an exemplar of how a self-organizing systems paradigm is conceptualized. Although a more comprehensive study is needed to confirm the data, this exemplar suggests that overflow into areas not typically associated with each disability subtype may occur. Concerns regarding ways of determining discrepancy for diagnostic purposes are noted, and remediation strategies designed for specific disabilities are questioned.

Attention deficits and reading disabilities: Are immediate memory defects additive?

This study examined the interaction of Attention Deficits and Learning Disabilities on the immediate memory abilities of children. Forty children, between 7 years 0 months and 13 years 11 months old, independently diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD; criteria from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [3rd ed., rev. [DSM‐III‐R]; American Psychiatric Association, 1987]) by a pediatrician and a pediatric psychologist were matched to 40 children who were independently diagnosed with Undifferentiated Attention Deficit Disorder (UADD; criteria from DSM‐III‐R) according to Full Scale IQ, grade, and sex. These children were further subgrouped based on the presence of an identified Learning Disability (LD) in reading. Consequently four groups of children were formed, ADHD+LD, ADHD‐LD, UADD+LD, and UADD‐LD. All children were administered the Color Span Test, a test of immediate visual and verbal memory. The findings revealed that, overall, children with attention deficits and a comorbid LD (ADHD+LD, UADD+LD) had greater memory deficits, suggesting that LD had an “additive effect.” In addition, children with ADHD exhibited significantly more memory deficits than children with UADD.

Psychoeducational Assessment of Children with Congenital Heart Disease Undergoing Cardiac Surgery

The physical and psychological development of 48 children (ages 4 to 12) with congenital heart disease who had average intelligence were examined to evaluate their educational performance. Categorization by diagnosis and surgical procedure placed 25 children in Group 1 with acyanotic, correctible cardiac defects and 23 in Group 2 with cyanotic, palliative defects. We found that the children were at risk for learning problems regardless of the severity of the cardiac defect; however, risk factors increased with the severity of the defect. Gross and fine motor and visual motor integration skills were comparable to the norm group for Group 1, but Group 2 exhibited motor delays. When compared by their teachers to their typical peers at school, overall functioning for Group 1 was within the average range, but Group 2 was below average. However, teachers also stated that both groups were more likely than average to have identified learning disabilities and problems with socialization. For the pediatrician, as well as the educator, there needs to be recognition that children with congenital heart disease can have significant school problems even when the operation is successful.

Performance of Children with Learning Disablities and Motor Delays on the Pediatric Clinical Test of Sensory Interaction for Balance (P-CTSIB)

The ability of children with learning disabilities and motor delays to maintain postural stability under conditions of sensory conflict was compared to that of children who were typically developing. Thirty-six children, 6 through 9 years of age, with identified learning disabilities and motor delays were matched according to age, sex, and ethnicity with 36 children who were typically developing. The Pediatric Clinical Test of Sensory Interactions for Balance (P-CTSIB) was administered to both groups. This test requires children to maintain standing balance while the sensory environment is systematically altered. Performance of the two groups on six sensory system scales were compared using the Mann-Whitney U. The children with learning disabilities and motor delays received significantly lower scores on four of the six sensory system scales. These results suggest that some children with learning disabilities and motor delays have defecits in sensory organization related to balance which may contribute to...

An Analysis of Two Discrepancy-based Models and a Processing-Deficit Approach in Identifying Learning Disabilities

The incidence of learning disabilities (LD) in a research center sample of 107 boys and 103 girls between 6 and 12 years of age was calculated using Wechsler IQ and Woodcock-Johnson cluster scores in a regression model (REG) and a reliability model (REL). The REL method identified LD three times more often than the REG method, and all those identified by REG were also identified by REL. When stratified by IQ, REG and REL identified similar percentages in the lowest IQ group; however, REG identified at a lower rate as IQ increased. All 87 children identified with reading disabilities (both REL-RD and REG-RD) were weak to a similar extent on phonemic awareness. Comorbid elevated attention ratings were found in 62% of children with RD; 26% had elevated attention ratings but no linguistic processing deficits, and 21% had at least one linguistic processing deficit but no attentionally suspect rating.

Validity of IQ-Achievement Discrepancy Criteria for Identifying Learning Disabilities

IQ-achievement discrepancy criteria identified 24 children with learning disabilities (LD) having a lower Verbal-higher Performance (LV-HP) WISC-R IQ profile and 33 children with slower learning (SL). The majority of children were white males of lower to middle-class background and ranged in age from 77 to 159 months. Except for predetermined Performance scale group differences, children with LD were not found to be otherwise distinguished by differences on WISC-R subtest scores, subtest scatter, or variation among Kaufman and Bannatyne category scores. Only one of the WISC-R profile differences that was an advantage for the children with LD satisfied test criteria for clinical significance. None of the differences predicted their reading, spelling, or aritlunetic achievement. Results suggest that children who are differentially identified as LV-HP LD or SL based on IQ achievement discrepancy criteria may not be distinguishable on any other aspects of their WISC-R profile that are related to their basic academic performance.

Classwide Curriculum-Based Measurement: Helping General Educators Meet the Challenge of Student Diversity

This study examined the effectiveness of innovative curriculum-based measurement (CBM) classwide decision-making structures within general education mathematics instruction, with and without recommendations for how to incorporate CBM feedback into instructional planning. Forty general educators, each of whom had at least one student with an identified learning disability for math instruction, were randomly assigned to three groups: CBM with classwide reports that summarized information and provided instructional recommendations, CBM with reports but without recommendations, and contrast (no CBM). Results indicated that only the CBM teachers who received instructional recommendations designed better instructional programs and effected greater achievement for their students.

Contextual Variables Affecting Instructional Adaptation for Difficult-to-Teach Students

This study examined how contextual variables affect the types of instructional adaptations teachers propose for students experiencing academic failure. Participants were general educators, each of whom taught at least one student with an identified learning disability (students with LD) in a mainstream reading (n = 35 teachers) or math (n = 41 teachers) class. Teachers specified how they would solve a hypothetical instructional problem of a student with LD with current and with ideal resources, in reading or math, depending on the academic area in which they provided instruction to their actual pupil with LD. Within the academic area, teachers were assigned randomly to three idea generation formats: oral independent, written independent, and assisted with ideas for potential solutions. Hierarchical log-linear analysis indicated that idea generation format affected the types of adaptations teachers identified. Results are discussed in terms of how contextual variables affect the process and substance of teachers' instructional adaptation for difficult-to-teach pupils, as well as methodological considerations in designing research on teacher planning.

Test-retest reliability of the test of visual perceptual skills with children with learning disabilities.

This study examined the test-retest reliability of the Test of Visual Perceptual Skills (nonmotor) (TVPS). The sample consisted of 30 first- and second-grade children (aged 6 years through 8 years) with identified learning disabilities. The TVPS was administered on two separate occasions that were 1 to 2 weeks apart. The intraclass correlation coefficient for the total test standard scores was .81. The intraclass correlation coefficients for the subtests ranged from .33 (Sequential Memory) to .78 (Form Constancy). The primary finding from this study is that TVPS scores on the total test show adequate test-retest reliability for use in clinical settings. The scores on the subtests, however, should be used with extreme caution, as the test-retest reliability estimates were low.

Methodological Issues and Learning Disabilities Diagnosis in Clinical Populations

Previous research suggests that the diagnosis of a comorbid learning disability is dependent on the method used for making the LD diagnosis. This study investigated that proposition by studying the effects of using three approaches to the assessment of learning disabilities in a sample of 177 six- to thirteen-year-old boys referred to outpatient mental health clinics for behavior problems. The use of these three procedures to diagnose comorbid learning problems produced significantly different results. All methods identified significant numbers of children in the clinical population as learning disabled; however, each method identified children with differing characteristics. Consistent with predictions from measurement theory, the commonly used simple standard score discrepancy method was more likely to identify children with above-average IQs as learning disabled, whereas a regression approach identified learning disabilities more consistently across the ability range. These results were interpreted as supporting the use of regression approaches to diagnose co-occurring learning disabilities, as that method is less likely to be biased by the child's intelligence test score. The implications of the use of each method in research investigations is also discussed.