Special Education Identification Research Articles

Is Response to Intervention Good Policy for Specific Learning Disability?

The reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act ( IDEA ) established new provisions for specific learning disability (SLD) identification, including: (a) no longer requiring consideration of IQ–achievement discrepancy and (b) permitting response to intervention (RTI) as part of SLD evaluation procedures. We discuss several policy implications of these new regulations by considering the original construct of SLD, the still “experimental” status and implementation of RTI, the closer alignment of RTI objectives with No Child Left Behind than former IDEA regulations, and the shift in focus from serving as a special education identification procedure to a general education instructional procedure. We conclude by proposing several recommendations for the appropriate inclusion of both RTI and psychometric evaluation within the continuum of SLD identification procedures.

From Early Childhood Special Education to Special Education Resource Rooms

Results of an exploratory study of eligibility decisions made for 19 Spanish-speaking English language learners (ELLs), who qualified for special education in early childhood and subsequently received special education reading instruction, are reported. Full and individual evaluations revealed that only 9 students demonstrated significant Intelligence Quotient–reading achievement discrepancies. Because the study's purpose was to describe characteristics of ELLs with reading-related learning disabilities (LD), these students became the focus of analyses. After examining data from students' school records, an expert panel concluded that 1 student had reading-related LD, 3 had disabilities other than LD, and 5 had problems that could be explained by other factors. Issues associated with the special education identification process for ELLs are discussed and recommendations for improving practice are offered.

Why Youngsters With Autistic Spectrum Disorders Remain Underrepresented in Special Education

Although numerous investigations have examined the prevalence of autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) in the general population, have special education identification rates of autism kept pace? From the 1992–1993 to 2001–2002 school years, U.S. Department of Education data indicate an increase from 15,580 to 97,904 students with autism, an expansion of 528% and an annual average growth of 22.69%. The number of students with autism per 10,000 public school enrollees has correspondingly increased from 3.64 to 20.53 during this period. Despite this expansion, there remains a substantial gap between students identified with autism under the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act and current prevalence estimates of ASD, in large part due to underidentification of youngsters on the higher functioning end of the spectrum.

Where Differences Matter

U.S. education policy acknowledges the troubling differential rates of special education identification and placement for students who are culturally and linguistically diverse by requiring states to review annually student identification data from all local education agencies to identify and address disproportionate representation. Yet, little is known about the interaction between families that are culturally and linguistically diverse and the service providers they encounter at their local schools. The authors examine those relationships in South Africa and the United States, two countries where the legacy of racism lingers in the ways in which school personnel and families negotiate differences in how children are viewed, assessed, and offered support for learning needs. In both countries, sustained efforts from families and school personnel were needed to develop supports and services that worked well for students with disabilities and their families.

Hurry Up and Wait: Rethinking Special Education Identification in Kindergarten

This article makes the case that it no longer makes sense to delay the process of identifying children with disabilities until after kindergarten. The purposes, expectations, and day-to-day realities of kindergarten have changed, and children who eventually will be identified for special education are put at a considerable disadvantage when their special learning needs are not addressed during the kindergarten year. The article identifies inadequate solutions and suggests strategies that teachers and schools can use to address the status quo and work to change policy and tradition regarding special education identification in kindergarten.

Unproven Links

The high degree of overlap of race and poverty in our society has led to the presumption in both research and practice that ethnic disproportionality in special education is in large measure an artifact of the effects of poverty. This article explores relationships among race, poverty, and special education identification to arrive at a more precise estimate of the contribution of poverty to racial disparities. District-level data for all 295 school corporations in a midwestern state were analyzed for this study. Records included information on disability category, general and special education enrollment by race, socioeconomic level, local resources, and academic and social outcomes for 1 school year. Simple correlations among the variables demonstrate that correlations between race and poverty of even moderate strength do not guarantee that the 2 variables will function in the same way with respect to outcome variables, such as identification for special education services. Results of regression analyses indicate that poverty makes a weak and inconsistent contribution to the prediction of disproportionality across a number of disability categories. On the other hand, rates of suspension and expulsion consistently predict district rates of special education disproportionality. Inconsistent relationships between special education disproportionality and achievement may indicate a developmental trend in the systemic contribution to racial disparity. Ideal-type analyses examining race— poverty relationships indicate that where poverty makes any contribution above and beyond race in predicting disability identification, its primary effect is to magnify existing racial disparity.

Prevention Model Takes Off in Schools: A New Approach for Learning Disabilities

Prevention Model Takes Off in Schools: A New Approach for Learning Disabilities

Response to early literacy instruction: Practical issues for early childhood personnel preparation

Converging research has demonstrated the importance of early literacy intervention to prevent reading disabilities. However, no one program can meet the needs of all children. One proposed revision of current special education identification procedures is known as the response‐to‐intervention (RTI) model. RTI will require that early childhood educators deliver research‐based early literacy instruction, assess children's progress in the curriculum, and develop intensive individualized interventions to improve outcomes for children who do not make adequate progress. This article addresses the challenge facing professionals who provide preservice and in‐service early childhood teacher education and who must train personnel to implement RTI.

Parental Etiological Explanations and Disproportionate Racial/Ethnic Representation in Special Education Services for Youths with Emotional Disturbance

Although there has long been concern about underidentification or misidentification of children with emotional or behavioral disorders in special education, recent attention has also been focused on disproportionate racial and ethnic representation of children in the school category of emotional disturbance (ED). There is evidence that African American children may be overidentified in the ED category while Asian and Hispanic children may be underidentified, although these findings are not consistent from sample to sample. In this study the authors examined parental beliefs about the causes of their child's problems as a potential partial mediator between race or ethnicity and special education identification for emotional disturbance. The sample of 1,019 children was drawn from a larger study of at-risk youths who were active in at least one of five public sectors of care. In this sample, parental explanatory etiologies relating to personality and relational issues were found to account for part of the racial or ethnic differences in ED service use for Latino and Asian American/Pacific Islander children.

Trends in the Special Education Identification Rates of Boys and Girls: A Call for Research and Change

Female underrepresentation in special education is now of significant concern to educators. The purpose of this study was to present nationally representative information about the extent of disproportionate representation for the disability conditions of learning disabilities, mental retardation, and emotional disturbance. Using data collected by the U.S. Office for Civil Rights, national trends are reported in gender disproportion between 1980-1997. Recommendations are made for carefully designed empirical research to elucidate the basis for differences, improved data collection and reporting by gender, and changes in practice.

Children at Risk: Effects of a Four-Year Head Start Transition Program on Special Education Identification

Children in Head Start are at risk for school learning or behavioral problems. While Head Start has decreased special education placement, there has been little systematic data until recently on identification of children in disability categories following preschool. In this study, two cohorts of 6,162 children across 30 sites were followed through third grade. Approximately half of these children were provided transition assistance from kindergarten through third grade. This included school transition and curricular modifications, parent involvement activities, health screening or referrals, and family social services, all similar to those received in Head Start. They were compared to a similar group of Head Start children who did not receive such services beyond the Head Start experience. Special education eligibility was determined from school records in the spring of third grade. Only 0.89% of children in the transition group were identified in the mental retardation category compared to 1.26% in the non-transition group. In the category of emotional disturbance, these same figures were 1.21% and 1.65% respectively. Both differences were statistically significant, but an opposite effect was found in the category of speech or language impairment. Findings are discussed in relation to differences in disability categories and implications for early identification.

Head Start Children at Third Grade: Preliminary Special Education Identification and Placement of Children with Emotional, Learning, and Related Disabilities

Although children in Head Start are at risk for emotional or behavioral problems, little is known about their later need for special education. There is evidence that children at risk for emotional disturbance are underidentified or misidentified in other special education categories. We examined special education identification rates for Head Start children at risk for emotional disturbance, learning disabilities, speech or language impairments, and mental retardation as they complete third grade. Two cohorts of 4136 children across 30 sites were followed as part of a larger study on transition. Diagnosis of each child as being at risk for emotional disturbance or related disabilities was made using clinical cut-offs on teacher ratings and individual testing completed in the spring of third grade. Special education eligibility of these children was determined from school records. Only 31.8% of children considered to be at risk, based on research diagnostic criteria, were actually identified by the schools, and fewer than 6% of children at risk for ED were identified in the school category of ED. Comparisons were made between school-identified and nonidentified children in gender, ethnicity, and school variables; and findings were discussed in relation to underidentification or misidentification of children with emotional disturbance.

Meeting the needs of the visually impaired child

The Code of Practice on the identification and assessment of special education needs came into effect on 1 September 1994. It was issued in response to the 1993 Education Act. The code includes the principle that, wherever possible (and subject to parental views) children with special educational needs should be educated in mainstream schools. This includes the education of the under-fives and so we can expect to see visually impaired children in our pre-schools.

Special Education Identification of Head Start Children with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders in Second Grade

Underidentification of emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) appears to be a particular problem for children from low-income families. In the current study, two cohorts of 3,694 second-grade children across 30 sites were screened for EBD as part of a larger study on Head Start transition. At-risk status for EBD was determined by developing two sets of research diagnostic criteria: One set reflected the current federally mandated school definition of emotional disturbance (ED), which requires that ED symptoms in school be accompanied by functional impairment in academic or social skills. The second set reflected a proposed alternative definition that would require both school and parent involvement in determining the presence of symptoms. Children were assessed using clinical cutoff points on behavior ratings from teachers and parents, along with a determination of functional impairment in social skills or academic achievement. Actual school identification of children was done through a school archival records search in the spring of the children's second-grade year. Identification rates for the criteria sets were 16.9% for the current school definition and 6.2% for the alternative definition. Most participants identified by either criteria set were identified by the schools as belonging in categories other than emotional disturbance. Findings are discussed in relation to misidentification of children with EBD and possible gender or ethnic biases.

"Identification of special education needs with the Personality Inventory for Children (PIC): A hierarchical classification model": Correction.

"Identification of special education needs with the Personality Inventory for Children (PIC): A hierarchical classification model": Correction.

"Identification of special education needs with the Personality Inventory for Children (PIC): A hierarchical classification model": Correction.

"Identification of special education needs with the Personality Inventory for Children (PIC): A hierarchical classification model": Correction.

Identification of special education needs with the Personality Inventory for Children (PIC): A hierarchical classification model.

Psychologists who test children for possible special education placement are obliged to incorporate parental input into the assessment process. This investigation studied the utility of a multidimensional, parent-informant questionnaire, the Personality Inventory for Children (PIC), as a screening measure for the need for special education services. PIC profiles from children in regular classrooms and classrooms for the learning disabled, emotionally impaired, and mentally impaired were used in discriminant function analyses to develop a set of hierarchical classification rules. Results of analyses within both a derivation and a replication sample indicated reasonably high correct classification rates for these rules. Also, results within a third sample of AfricanAmerican and White children matched for IQ suggested absence of classification bias by race. Implications of these results for use of the PIC in school assessments are discussed. Federal guidelines that define the basic categories of special education services (e.g., PL 94-142, Federal Register, 1977) specify that parental input must be considered in the placement of children. School psychologists and other assessment practitioners who evaluate referred children are thus obliged to gather parental observations about child adjustment that are relevant to the determination of the need for remedial services. Objective questionnaires are a common means to systematicall y gather parental observations (e.g., Lachar, 1993), which typically represent parental concerns across several adjustment domains with reports in each domain normed by child age and gender. Examples of parent-inform ant questionnaires with good psychometric properties that are widely used in school and child clinical evaluations include the recently revised Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach, 1991) and the Personality Inventory for Children (PIC; Wirt, Lachar, Klinedinst, & Seat, 1984), the subject of this article. The PIC has characteristics that may be advantageous for its use in school settings. For example, the age range of the normative sample for the PIC spans the preschool, elementary, and high-school years and it has scales that reflect child cognitivedevelopmental status as well as emotional-behavioral adjustment. PIC profile scales (e.g., Lachar & Gdowski, 1979) and profile patterns (e.g., Kline, Lachar, & Gdowski, 1992) can be interpreted using empirically based guidelines. Finally, the research literature about the validity of the PIC in school assessments is relatively large, which we briefly summarize here. Scores from PIC scales constructed as measures of child cognitive-scholastic functioning (e.g., Achievement, Intellectual Screening, and Development) correlate about —.60 to —.40 with

Identification of special education needs with the Personality Inventory for Children (PIC): A hierarchical classification model.

Identification of special education needs with the Personality Inventory for Children (PIC): A hierarchical classification model.

Pedagogy, Special Education, and the Lives of Young Children: A Critical and Futuristic Perspective

A critical view is taken of the predominant positivist-empiricist assumptions that underlie most theories in the social sciences and which have had enormous influence on special education. These mechanistic assumptions (which include linearity, predictability, quantification, fact/value separation, stimulus-response model, and fragmentation) form the foundation for textbooks in early childhood special education, screening tests, and early identification measures. In the United States they have been solidified under Public Law 94–142. Against this backdrop, contemporary theoretical developments are noted as they provide us with more adequate principles by which to guide our work. Holism, phenomenology, and social constructionism offer valuable support to the concepts of all children as meaning makers, of growth through transformations, and of the socially constructed nature of knowing and of knowledge. Implications for early childhood education are drawn.

Early identification of handicaps and early special education in the German Democratic Republic

Early identification of handicaps and early special education in the German Democratic Republic