Ideal Self-concept Research Articles

Negative ideal-self as a standard of self-esteem

The concept of negative ideal-self is introduced as a contrast to positive ideal-self. Discrepancies between positive ideal-self and real-self (Dp-score) have been associated with low self-esteem. The present study purported to see whether negative ideal-self may be a standard of self evaluation, and to what extent discrepancies between negative ideal-self and real-self (Dn-score) relate with self-esteem (Rosenberg). The results showed that both Dp-score and Dn-score correlate significantly with self-esteem, but the latter showed higher correlation than the former. It is suggested that self-esteem is more a function of distance that how 'I' am not the person which 'I' want to be. These findings were discussed from the importance of an approach to negative aspects of the self.

Trait actualization and self-reference effects

Subjects made self-reference judgments about the same trait adjectives from two perspectives, once in terms of the real self and once in terms of the ideal self. Traits could then be partitioned into four categories: those descriptive of both real- and ideal-self concepts, descriptive of real self only (not in the ideal-self concept), descriptive of ideal self only (not in the real-self concept), and those in neither the real- nor the ideal-self concept. Unactualized traits (real only or ideal only) took more time for self-descriptiveness decisions than did actualized (both) traits. Ideal-self decisions were made faster in general than were real-self decisions, for both actualized and unactualized traits. Traits judged to be descriptive of the real self (both or real only) were recalled better than those not descriptive of real self (ideal only and neither); in particular, subjects were best at remembering undesirable features of the real self and desirable features of the ideal self.

Study of ideal-self discrepancy and observed social behaviors in a therapeutic community.

This descriptive study explored relations between ideal self-discrepancy (often referred to as self-esteem or self-concept) and behaviors observed in 27 residents of a therapeutic community for polydrug users. The Sliding Person Test (SPERT), an abstract, nonverbal measure of self-reported, ideal self-discrepancy was administered three times a week, for seven consecutive weeks to 27 subjects after regularly scheduled group meetings. Data were charted on graphs to reveal fluctuations of ideal self-discrepancy and incidences of observed, documented changes in behavior. Analysis suggests the instrument detects some changes in ideal self-discrepancy congruent with transitional behaviors. In more than half of the cases, fluctuation of 25% or more in discrepancy between ideal self-concept and at-the-moment self-concept was directly related to an observed change in behavior or residents' transition in the hierarchy of the program's structure. Implications for validity and reliability issues concerning measures of ideal-self-discrepancy are briefly discussed.

The Real-Ideal Self-Concept Discrepancy and its Relation to Guilt

Previous research on the discrepancy between real and ideal self-concepts has shown this gap to be related to neuroticism and various forms of emotional discomfort. Although authors have speculated about the relation between guilt and the real-ideal gap, no previous study has directly explored this relationship. The current study specifically examined the relationship of conscience-guilt to self-reported discrepancies between real and ideal self-concepts in 57 adults (24 to 38 yr. old). A significant positive correlation of .5 between these sets of scores indicates that greater real-ideal self-concept discrepancy tends to be associated with greater self-report of guilt.

Prediction of treatment response in pain patients: the illness self-concept repertory grid and emg feedback

Eighteen patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain completed a trial of EMG feedback where each subject was exposed to biofeedback, a control condition and a waiting list. Pain scores were determined pre- and posttrial, and the percentage change calculated for each subject. EMG activity and present pain measured during the trial gave an EMG/pain correlation for each patient. A repertory grid was completed by each patient at the pretrial evaluation. Repertory grid technique is a highly flexible way of measuring subjective data such as attitudes. The specific test used involved the patient in rating a series of 6 self-concepts across 8 ‘constructs’ or concepts concerning illness and emotional distress. The resulting matrix of 48 ratings was analysed to produce a measurement of ‘distance’ between the self and ideal-self concepts. The major finding was that the self-ideal-self distance was significantly positively correlated with pain score changes by rank correlation. The self-ideal-self distance is essentially a measure of self-satisfaction or dissatisfaction and the results imply that patients who show a relatively greater degree of self-dissatisfaction are more likely to respond well to EMG feedback. In addition, patients with high EMG/pain correlations had a better outcome and this measure also correlated with pain scores. The relationship between self-concepts and EMG/pain correlations is discussed. The Illness Self-Concept Repertory Grid appears capable of predicting treatment outcome and shows promise as a prognostic tool.

Self-image and social-image factors in adolescent alcohol use.

To investigate the social image of adolescent drinking, high-school students were asked to rate slides of drinking and nondrinking peer models. The image was ambivalent, with both social liabilities and possible social benefits (including toughness and precocity). This image was then related to adolescent drinking behavior. It was hypothesized that adolescents might be more likely to drink if their self-concepts were consistent with a drinking image (consistency theory), if their ideal self-concepts were consistent with a drinking image (self-enhancement) or if their friends admired a drinking image (impression management). Analyses of subjects' current drinking behavior supported both the consistency and self-enhancement hypotheses. Moreover, boys' intentions to drink in the future were related to consistency and impression-management variables (controlling for current drinking). Girls' intentions were not related to any of these self-image and social-image factors. Implications for adolescent alcohol use and misuse are discussed.

Assessment of relationship between self-concept and body image using multivariate techniques.

A convenience sample of 109 subjects was chosen for investigation of several psychological constructs. Each person rated Present and Ideal Self on 42 semantic differential bipolar scales and Present and Ideal Body on 28 semantic differential bipolar scales. Five dimensions for each of the two self and two body concepts were obtained via factor analysis. The dimensions were then subjected to canonical correlation and multiple regression to determine interrelationships. Significant relationships were found between Present Self and Present Body as well as between Present and Ideal Self and Present and Ideal Body. The significant results have implications for development of psychotherapeutic nursing interventions that would be directed toward both self-concept and body image as well as increasing the congruence between Present and Ideal Self-concept and Body Image.

An Examination of the Use of Contracts in Groups

This study examined the effects of making contracts in a group on the discrepancy between real and ideal self-concepts of 24 individuals who were participating in a 15-week group experience. Individuals in Group 1 were asked to make contracts whereas persons in Group 2 were not asked to do this. An analysis of covariance indicated that Group I showed a significantly greater change toward more congruence in perception of self and ideal self than did Group 2. Implications are discussed.

Coping imagery, systematic desensitization, and self-concept change

The hypothesis was proposed that gains in self-concept as the result of systematic desensitization could be determined by active coping imagery. In a study of the effects of coping imagery on self-concept, subjects high in test anxiety were assigned to one of four groups: coping imagery, systematic desensitization, combined coping imagery and systematic desensitization, and no-treatment control. The three treatment groups were equally effective in reducing test anxiety. The coping imagery instructions produced significant reductions (with initial levels statistically controlled)in the discrepancy between perceived self- and ideal self-concept, and increased study behavior for minor exams and midterm exams. No difference between groups on the self-concept variable or ideal self-concept variable alone were obtained. Implications for treatment are discussed.

Religious motivation in middle age: correlates and implications.

The purpose of this study was to determine the relative relationship of self-rated health, age, sex, race, three measures of self-concept (actual, appearance, and ideal), education, occupation, and locus of control to religious motivation in middle age. The subjects were 301 men and women between the ages of 45 and 65 years from 22 randomly selected United Methodist churches. The results of the study show that factors reflective of the process of acculturation such as sex, ideal self-concept, and locus of control maintain the strongest relationship with religious motivation. Women, persons who have high idealized self-concepts, and adults who believe that what happens to them is under their personal control are less likely than others to be extrinsically motivated or to show a "self-centered" dependence upon religion. Consequently, the findings suggest that an important relationship may exist between the "comfort" or "challenge" functions of religion and spiritual well-being in later life for middle-aged groups.

Changes in self-concept and ideal self-concept after viewing a videotaped speech

Several conclusions can be drawn from this study: 1) At midterm there was no difference in self-concept or ideal self-concept factors clearly attributable to the videotape experience. 2) At midterm there was a significant difference on the Pleasantness factor of self-concept between videotaped males and videotaped females. 3) Females videotaped during the first half of the semester significantly increased on the Strength factor of self-concept during the second half of the semester. 4) At the end of the semester there were no significant differences in self-concept or ideal self-concept scores attributable to the time in the semester of the videotape experience. But there was a sleeper effect for females on the Strength factor that began about seven weeks after self-viewing and led to enhancement of self-concept. 5) At the end of the semester females videotaped early in the term had significantly higher scores on the Pleasantness factor of self-concept than did either group of males. 6) The significant interaction of factor x time x sex X time of videotape on the factors of ideal self-concept could not be explained.

Iranian Students' Perceptions of Hovayda and the Ideal Self

104 students (52 males and 52 females) of an Iranian University were administered a Persian language form of the Activity Vector Analysis. They were asked to give their perceptions of Mr. Hovayda, the Prime Minister of Iran, and the ideal self. Findings were that, while the distributions of these AVA Profiles were quite widely dispersed, two distinct clusters were, nevertheless, identified. The cluster for the perception of Mr. Hovayda and that for the ideal self correlated —.04, suggesting statistical independence of the over-all perceptions of the Prime Minister and the ideal self-concepts of Iranian students. A male-female breakdown, however, showed there was a tendency for the Iranian males to be more congruent (median r = .34) in their perceptions of Mr. Hovayda and the ideal self and for the females to be less congruent (median r = —.04).

Effect of Acquisition of Knowledge on Self-Evaluation and the Relationship of Self-Evaluation to Perception of Real and Ideal Self-Concept

To investigate the effect of knowledge acquisition on self-evaluation and self-concept 69 graduate nursing students--25 in an experimental group, 18 in control group I, and 26 in control group II--enrolled in three nursing courses provided demographic data, self-evaluation of entering behavior, and personality test data. The latter two tests were given on pre- and posttest bases. Seven hypotheses were tested. Overall results showed: The experimental group which was taught by means of mastery learning acquired significantly more knowledge than the control groups which received the traditional lecture-discussion method of learning; there was an inverse relationship between knowledge acquisition and self-evaluation of entering behavior; positive correlation between "amount of overestimation or underestimation of previous knowledge'' and extremes of self-concept was partially supported; in general, single students were less able to evaluate accurately by what they thought they knew than were married subjects; employment was inversely related with knowledge acquisition and course grade. The relationship between self-concept and acquisition of knowledge was not significant.

Drug dependence and self-esteem.

A number of recent studies have dealt with variables related to self-esteem, but despite suggestions in the literature, there are few empirical studies concerned with the association between self-esteem and drug dependence. In an investigation of self-esteem, 71 subjects completed semantic differential forms for their self and ideal-self concepts. Four hypotheses were investigated. It was predicted that differences in self-esteem (as measured by the discrepancy between self and ideal-self concepts), would be found between inpatient and outpatient groups, males and females, intravenous and oral users, and between drug-dependent subjects and a control group. No differences were found between inpatients and outpatients, or between intravenous and oral groups. However, females who were dependent upon drugs were found to have lower self-esteem than males in terms of the evaluation factor. No such sex differences were found between all drug groups and the control group on the evaluation and potency factors. It is suggested that the results show considerable deficiencies of self-esteem among drug-dependent patients, and that female addicts are especially deficient in this respect. In terms of etiology, this association between drug dependence and low self-esteem may indicate that those individuals with a deficient self-image who are exposed to drugs may be at risk; this may carry implications also for alcohol and nicotine dependence. It is suggested that self-image therapy may be of value for certain drug-dependent patients, especially females.

English students' perception of Heath and ideal self.

50 English university students were asked to give their perceptions of Prime Minister Heath and of the ideal self using the Activity Vector Analysis. Two distinct clusters were noted which correspond quite closely to previously obtained perceptions of national leaders vs the ideal self-concept. The mean vectors for the Heath vs ideal self clusters were essentially uncorrelated ( r = −.17).

Self-actualization and self-ideal discrepancy.

Summary The Time Competence Scale from the Personal Orientation Inventory was administered to 28 male and 47 female college students who then described their real and ideal self-concepts using the Interpersonal Check List. Self-actualizing individuals manifested greater congruence between their real and ideal self-concepts than did nonactualizing persons. Dominance was seen as a significantly more desirable integrative mechanism by the nonactualizing subjects. There was a nonsignificant trend in the desirability of an increase in acceptance as a function of the degree of self-actualization. Findings are discussed in terms of individuals' perceptions of congruence with their environment.

Self-Concepts and Television Viewing Among Women

In studies of TV program preference, personality traits have been relegated to the background. This article, in which TV viewing, itself, is considered value-expressive behavior, compares the self-concepts and ideal self-concepts of light and heavy TV viewers and relates them to demographic variables. The author is Associate Professor of Marketing and Communications at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles. He wishes to thank the Los Angeles Times for permission to publish these data and Professor David McConaughy for his comments on the manuscript.

Person Perception and Courtship Progress among Premarital Couples

Predicated on the belief that person perception was related to courtship progress and that men are more important to courtship progress than women, a college sample of 98 premarital couples received a shortened form of the Marital Expectation Test taken under eight different sets: self, ideal-self, ideal-spouse, partner; how partner perceives you, his ideal-spouse, himself, and his ideal-self Hypotheses predicted that six months later Ss making good courtship progress would be those who earlier had confirmed their partners' self and ideal-self concepts and also accurately predicted these concepts. It was also predicted that the man is a more important perceptual target than the woman. Hypotheses were essentially confirmed.

Self and ideal self-concept in a drug-using subculture.

Summary This study explores the self and ideal self-concepts of 43 drug users and 39 non-drug users via Leary's Interpersonal Checklist. Both groups had ideals characterized as high in Love and Dominance. The drug group was higher both in self and ideal description on the Rebellious-Distrustful and lower on the Managerial-Autocratic dimension. There was also less discrepancy between the self and ideal-self ratings for the drug group. They idealized more hostility than did the non-drug group, reflecting perhaps a more cynical outlook or one more acceptant of personal anger.

Iranian Students' Perception of the Reza Shah and the Ideal Self

50 students of an Iranian University were administered a Persian language form of the AVA. They were asked to give their perceptions of the Reza Shah, the Great and of the Ideal-self concept. Findings showed a very tight cluster ( n = 47) around AVA “Administrative Pattern” for perceptions of the Reza Shah, and two clusters for the students' perception of the Ideal Self. One cluster ( n = 23) was consistent with findings of previous studies, attesting to the existence of a stereotype “perfect person” perception. The other cluster ( n3 = 18) overlapped completely with the “Administrative Pattern” cluster, yielding evidence that for some Ss, their ideal self-concepts were being influenced by their perceptions of their former great leader.