Iconic Signs Research Articles

Rhythm in verse

Abstract This paper on rhythm is an adaptation of the semiotic research on rhythm in versified language presented as one of the seven types of poetic iconicity in Chapter 5 of The Communicative Mind: A Linguistic Exploration of Conceptual Integration and Meaning Construction (L. Brandt 2013) entitled “Effects of poetic enunciation: Seven types of iconicity”. Defined by the linebreak, poetic language use engenders distinctive interpretive affordances, some of which manifest themselves as emphatically iconic sign relations contributing to the expressive whole of a text. In “Effects of poetic enunciation”, I explore syntactic, semantic, phonetic, rhythmic and rhetorical aspects of the phenomenon of semiotic iconicity, and its counterpart aniconicity, in language characterized by an intentionally (line)broken syntax and contribute a systematic account of the different types of semiotic iconicity relations, understood as figural or diagrammatic similarity relations – or, conversely, potent dissimilarity relations, i.e. aniconicity – between expressive means and semantic content. Rhythmic iconicity is the fifth type of iconicity in this typology.

DISCOURSIVE PECULIARITIES OF ENGLISH HOROSCOPES

The article is devoted to the discoursive (compositional, lexical and pragmatic) features of English horoscopes as a kind of astrological discourse. The material of the study was a corpus of texts presented on the Internet. The total sample volume is 50 horoscopes. Compositional, pragmatic and stylistic features of horoscopes were considered as a subject of research. Astrological discourse is an integral part of the modern media space. Its growing popularity determines the relevance of such studies aimed at identifying the features of this type of discourse. The term "discourse" is understood as the communication of people from the standpoint of their belonging to a particular social group or in relation to a typical speech situation. There is now a great variety of texts that have an astrological character in the cultural English-speaking space. A significant proportion of them are texts containing various horoscopes. Study of the typology of horoscope texts in English, their structural, pragmatic, etc. characteristics, obviously, is an important stage in the study of astrological discourse in general. The main function of the horoscope is prediction (description of the future). A typical astrological horoscope, placed in the media space, declares knowledge about the influence of celestial bodies on the fate of people and their earthly events, according to which they can be predicted by the relative position of celestial bodies. The main characteristics of horoscopes are their lexical content, compositional structure and pragmatics. The study of the linguistic features of astrological predictions allowed us to identify the main functions performed by horoscopes in the media space: informative, appealing, persuasive and emotional. A horoscope is a polycode text that contains verbal and nonverbal signs. The latter include iconic signs and typesetting means. We see the prospect of further research in the study of the linguistic features of other genres of English astrological discourse.

Signs Found in San Andreas Movie

Humans, as social beings, must always communicate with others in their daily lives. Language is certainly used when communicating with others. The goal of this study was to identify, classify, and analyze the different types of signs and their functions in the San Andreas movie. This study employs a qualitative approach. The study’s findings revealed that signs can be found in movies. The movie ”San Andreas” served as a data source, demonstrating how different people use signs. Icon, Index, and Symbol are just some of the signs used here. Each sign has different functions as well. Ideational Metafunction, Interpersonal Metafunction, and Textual Metafunction are all parts of the sign’s function. Ideational Metafunction is one of the most prominent functions of the sign in the film ”San Andreas,” and it is most prominently displayed by the sign Icon. Icon, Index, and Symbol all contain Ideational Metafunction. In Index and Symbol, you’ll find Interpersonal Metafunction. Symbol and Index contain textual metafunction in this film.
 Keywords: sign, semiotics, San Andreas movie

Regional Arrangement to Increase Tourist Visits in Sumber Harapan Village, Sambas.

Sumber Harapan Village is a cultural tourism village known for its songket weaving crafts. Another tourism potential that the village has is a large river that stretches between settlers, wooden roads along the river banks, traditional houses, customs and culture. However, the existence of supporting facilities and infrastructure is still lacking and the arrangement of the village area has not been done properly. Through the PPDM program, the team make serious efforts to solve the through various activities that have been agreed together with mitra. The results of the activities that have been carried out through this program are the creation of plant gates, environmental arrangements in front of the weaving gazebo, the arrangement of the road to the weaving gazebo, the creation of a rest place, the procurement of tourism supporting facilities in the form of canoes and fittings, and the installation of the iconic sign of the tourist village. The results of the service have a major impact on the village community of Sumber Harapan. The existence of plant gates and village icon sign becomes a new photo spot that is crowded. The existence of supporting facilities such as canoes and resting places provides convenience for visitors. Many tourist visits have an economic impact on the villagers of Sumber Harapan in the form of increasing income and potentially opening up new business opportunities such as food stalls, souvenirs or as providers of services such as homestays or guesthouse.

Non-verbal communicative behavioral patterns of English teachers

This study sought to identify, describe, and document the nonverbal communicative behavioral patterns of English language teachers. Specifically, this study sought to: (1) identify the encouraging and the inhibiting nonverbal communicative behavioral patterns manifested by the college English language teachers; (2) identify the encouraging and the inhibiting nonverbal communicative behavioral patterns manifested by the high school English language teachers; (3) identify the encouraging and the inhibiting nonverbal communicative behavioral patterns manifested by the elementary English language teachers; and (4) identify the observable immediate effects nonverbal communicative behavioral patterns manifested by the English language teachers to their learners. Findings of the study revealed: (1) The encouraging nonverbal communicative behavioral patterns (kinesies) manifested by the college English language teachers were mostly gestures, specifically deictic movements, iconic signs, open palms arms, and head nodding. This was followed by facial expressions, postures, and eye contact. For paralanguage, praise/affirmation was very significant, followed by voice quality. (2) The high school English language teachers? encouraging nonverbal communicative behavioral patterns (kinesics) that were exhibited included gestures such as open palms/arms, deictic movements, hands extended forward, and head nodding. It also included facial expressions and eye contact. In paralinguistic aspects, the teachers still employed praises/affirmation and then a modulated voice quality. In terms of inhibiting kinesics, posture ranked first emphasizing on putting/folding both arms in front, followed by putting one or both hands at the back/pocket. Touching/wiping one?s face/nose/forehead under gestures come next in rank. The most observed facial expression manifested by the teachers was frowning, however, no manifestations of an inhibiting eye contact surfaced. In paralanguage category, hesitations (vocal segregates) were observed, but not very dominant, there were only very few manifestations recorded. (3) Most of the encouraging nonverbal communicative behavioral patterns (kinesics) manifested by the elementary English language teachers were still gestures (deictic movements, open palms/arms, head nodding), followed by posture with emphases on bending the body forward, poise/stance, pacing motions, and physical appearance. With respect to paralinguistics, praises/affirmation ranked first, followed by a modulated voice quality. For the inhibiting manifestations, postures were identified to be more dominant followed by gestures under kinesic category, hesitations (paralanguage) were also observed, though not very significant. (4) Considering the observable immediate effects of nonverbal communicative behavioral patterns manifested by the English language teachers, though the students/pupils vary in their perceptions on the role of their English language teachers? nonverbal communications, it was found out that majority of the students/pupils interviewed claimed that the encouraging nonverbal behaviors of their English language teachers have readily energized/incited them (students/pupils) to actively participate/interact in their class endeavor thereby making the class discussion a livelier one. It was also found out that the students/pupils came up with a common denominator as to their reasons for participating actively in their respective classes, to wit: (1) the nonverbal manifestations of their English language teachers help them (learners) in comprehending the lessons imparted to them, (2) they (nonverbal manifestations) enhance better appreciation to their teachers, for they capture their attention and interest, (3) encourage them to listen to and to interact in the discussion, (4) motivate them to express their ideas freely, (5) help simplify difficult words and expressions, (6) make classroom activities livelier, and (7) eliminate students' fears and tensions.

Sign iconicity helps learning new words for abstract concepts in a foreign language

Several studies have explored the use of iconic gestures to improve the learning of foreign vocabulary. In this quest, words for abstract concepts have been largely neglected, under the assumption that abstract concepts have poor or non-existent sensory-motor representations. Yet, the Conceptual Metaphor Theory suggests that they are grounded on concrete concepts. Moreover, analyses of signed languages reveal ways in which signs can exploit metonymies and conceptual metaphors to iconically refer to abstract concepts. Here, we explore whether iconic signs from Spanish Sign Language (LSE) can facilitate the learning of foreign words for abstract concepts in hearing participants who do not know any sign language. In two studies, participants were presented with new labels for abstract and concrete concepts in an artificial language (Vimmi). The labels could be accompanied by either a video of an iconic or non-iconic sign taken from the existing vocabulary of LSE, or a static image of the signer. In study 1, participants did not have to enact the signs they were presented with, while in study 2 they did. Both studies showed that iconic signs facilitated the learning of abstract foreign vocabulary, regardless of enactment. The strategies that sign languages use to develop iconic signs for abstract concepts make those signs useful to assist the learning of foreign words by hearing non-signers.

Principal Contributions of Semiotic-Structural Approach in Culturology

Pierce brought to research one of the main concepts of semiotics, the "sign", and Saussure brought to study the language system ("langue"), and thus they created a new view about culture. Semiotics was formed from the Greek word "semeion", a sign. Pierce's iconic signs were included in semiotics as names of depicted facts. So, a severe interest in semiotics was impulsed by the shaking (mini earthquake) of the "sign" concept. Two epistemological shakes or microearthquakes happened in the second half of the XIX century. One of them was connected with the notion of a "sign" (Pierce), and the other was connected to the idea of a "language". But much more lately, it was clear that two concepts were formed due to that earthquake, and they could become the basics of a new metalanguage. In the 20th century, "srtructuralism" began to be used. This term was brought to linguistics by Roman Yakobson. Zellig Harris assigned this term from Yakobson and named his book "Methods in Structural Linguistics". Everyone knew about the form and content of cultural and art events in the past. But when there was formed metalanguage of semiotics, connected with culture, a structure and content were identified with pointing and pointed components of the sign. So, semiotics realized the formulation of thinking to combine and separate something because it connected cultural facts with such notions as a sign, a structure and a text and, as a result, separated them from something. For example, it separated from non-cultural facts that weren't comprehended as a sign or text. It gave the metalanguage a new paraphrasing model based on semiotics. In the past culturological narrations were formed based on ideological admirations, statements or negative sayings, i.e. they were created from discourses of appraisal character. The period of confrontations and struggles made such discourses very popular. But in history, there were also such periods that speeches like "how well" and "how bad" exhausted themselves. There appeared a need for discourses like "how it is constructed". Exactly semiotics of culture became popular because they met this requirement.

The idea of building a new humanitarian discipline ‒ "narrative semiotics"

The article formulates the main provisions of narrative semiotics and offers an analysis of four cases illustrating the methodology of semiotic study within the framework of a new concept. The difficulties associated with the application of the traditional semiotic approach to the analysis of iconic signs, symbols, diagrams, music, and other works of art are characterized. The author's proposed version of the extended version of semiotics and the problems that arise in this case are outlined: firstly, the new approach is subjective, and secondly, it requires the concretization of semiotic discourse. Overcoming these difficulties, the author characterizes the narrative-semiotic approach, highlighting in it three plans of analysis (framework) and special concepts. The most general frame and the encompassing whole is "conscious cultural reality"; the second, also quite general frame and the encompassing whole (meaning narrative constructions), "cultural communication"; the third frame is the structure of the content of narrative constructions, consisting of two wholes a certain reality and signs that allow you to enter this reality, to actualize its events. These plans are defined as ideal objects and concepts that require specification and empirical verification. Solving this problem, the author analyzes four cases: an interesting childhood dream, a teenage experience of K.Jung, children's experience of works of art and the knowledge of love in Plato's "Feast". At the same time, along with the use of the concepts of the reality of culture, communication, the structure of the content of narrative construction, formation, development, evolution, the concepts of "life world" and "objectivity" are introduced. Agreeing that the concept of narrative semiotics is seriously different from the traditional one, the author claims that he tried to act within the framework of a semiotic approach, and therefore the proposed concept, in his opinion, has every right to be considered semiotic.

Iconicity, metonymy, and metaphor in Polish Sign Language signs denoting speech

This is the fi rst in a planned series of papers dedicated to Polish Sign Language (PJM) signs denoting speech. It presents an analysis of twenty different signs attested in the Polish Sign Language Corpus (KPJM) in terms of iconicity as well as metonymies and metaphors used in their formation. The conducted analysis showed that two classes of signs can be distinguished in the examined material: iconic signs making use of metonymy and signs motivated by a conceptual metaphor. The former refer exclusively to the production of speech as opposed to signing: the vehicle is the phonetic act (mouth movement or air movement). Metaphoric signs, in turn, consistently rely on the conduit metaphor, refer to both spoken and signed utterances, and focus on transmission of a semantic content.

Концепт общества потребления в современном коммуникационном пространстве рекламного дискурса

The article is devoted to identifying the essence of the concept of consumer society, which is implemented within the framework of modern advertising discourse in the conditions of digitalization and information technologies. Based on the provisions of the theory introduced by J. Baudrillard and taking into account the linguistic and semiotic features of up to date advertising discourse, it is shown that advertising communication is a part of the global information and communication space, which tends to multicultural codes, an international semiotic system, when interaction with the audience is carried out on the platforms of web 2.0 network social services primarily using various iconic signs and symbols. These features are found in the conceptual content of consumer society of the concept, which reflects such categories as network society, marketability, demand engineering, handling consumer practices and following consumption models, and also demonstrates the shift of the social hierarchy towards eHomo. It is established that consumer society in the modern global world is organized not by the idea of materialism, but by the idea of a dream, which the advertising discourse transmits through myths and simulacra, stereotyping, influencers, etc. Advertising communication is characterized by the reduction of the verbal component, polycode and multimedia content, striving for social-and-cultural symbols.

A Study of Theater Semiotics of Yuri Lotman: ‘The Two Types of Signs’ and ‘The Typology of Theater’

Cultural semiotician Yuri Lotman made theoretical contributions to theater semiotics. He typified signs into two types of signs: iconic signs and conventional signs. These two signs coexist and interact, sometimes are directed towards the nature of the other sign. Convention is the language, grammar, and device of art. Convention also works and functions in theatre. Through convention realism theater produces ‘naturalness’, i. e., iconic/natural signs in theater. And Peking Opera etc. produce ‘convention/unnaturalness’, that is, conventional signs. Theatricality is the language of theater as an art. This theatricality is related to convention and theatrical sign. The audience of art has the following two attitudes as in a game/play. 1) The audience must forget that what he appreciates is art, 2) The audience should not forget that what they appreciate is art. These two attitudes and two conventions of the audiences have created two theatricality, and these two theatricality have been fighting throughout the history of theater. The former, which produce iconic/natural signs, was mainly used in realism plays. And the latter, which produce conventional signs, was mainly used in Brecht plays. Based on these two criteria, a theater typology can be constructed.

Shared Context Facilitates Lexical Variation in Sign Language Emergence

It has been suggested that social structure affects the degree of lexical variation in sign language emergence. Evidence from signing communities supports this, with smaller, more insular communities typically displaying a higher degree of lexical variation compared to larger, more dispersed and diverse communities. Though several factors have been proposed to affect the degree of variation, here we focus on how shared context, facilitating the use of iconic signs, facilitates the retention of lexical variation in language emergence. As interlocutors with the same background have similar salient features for real world concepts, shared context allows for the successful communication of iconic mappings between form and culturally salient features (i.e., the meaning specific to an individual based on their cultural context). Because in this case the culturally salient features can be retrieved from the form, there is less pressure to converge on a single form for a concept. We operationalize the relationship between lexical variation and iconic affordances using an agent-based model, studying how shared context and also population size affects the degree of lexical variation in a population of agents. Our model provides support for the relationship between shared context, population size and lexical variation, though several extensions would help improve the explanatory power of this model.

Sgraffito as a Method of Wall Decoration in the Renaissance and Mannerist Silesia

During the Renaissance and Mannerist periods, in most European countries the fashion for decorating walls with sgraffiti covered a large part of continent, from Portugal to Romania, and from Central Italy to the German countries and Poland. Its popularity in the middle part of Europe peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries. In many regions, sgraffito was the dominant method of decorating buildings. Sgraffito styles were differentiated by design, artistic level, local conditions and investor preferences. In many regions north of the Alps, sgraffito decorations were, on the one hand, a frequently used method of modernizing medieval buildings, and, on the other, a form of expressing views, often religious ones. Everywhere, however, they expressed supranational belonging to the world of a post-medieval, revival community. It was no different in Silesia, where the sgraffiti madness arrived, thanks to artists who came from the northern regions of Italy around 1540 and settled down until the middle of the next century. The research carried out by the author has proven that, for Silesia, sgraffito was an iconic sign of the architecture of that period. In this region, then belonging to the Habsburg Monarchy, sgraffito decorations covered a wide variety of architectural objects, from barns, walls, and gates to tenement houses, manors, castles, and churches. In the case of the latter, research has shown that temples in Gothic style are heavily decorated with sgraffiti, which should be considered a distinctive feature when compared to other regions. At the same time, it was found that the vast majority of them appeared in forms and themes known to us from other countries covered by the sgraffito fashion. The frame composition made in this technique and, most probably modeled directly on the template by S. Serlia (Tutte L’opere d’Architettura et Prospettiva) from 1619, should be considered as the Silesian contribution to the sgraffito heritage as well as oval bossages. While studying Silesian sgraffito, some local technological differences were also noticed. With the advent of the Baroque period, a large part of the sgraffito decoration was covered (and thus preserved) with a new, baroque decorative costume. We still discover them in the present while carrying out conservation works (sometimes multiple) on historic buildings. Many others, those constantly on display, have been restored to preserve their original shape, or have been reconstructed. Various and simultaneously modernized methods are used to implement these works. Their correct selection depends on in-depth knowledge of sgraffito (historical, artistic, technological and technical) and their regional specificity. It also depends on the constant exchange of experiences between all those dealing with sgraffito heritage.

MULTIMODALITY IN MIDDLE AGES: DECIPHERING OLD PROVERBS’ IMAGE TEXT

The carnivalesque late Middle Ages, with passion for proverbs running through all its language strata and love for their visualisation not only through fine arts, but in book artwork as well, are a unique source of research data for the rapidly growing field of multimodality studies. Although verbal and iconic signs are different in nature, they supplement each other and interweave under the book covers of the time to form a semantic and pragmatic unity to influence the receptor holistically. It is worth noting here that the meaning of the “proverb” term is contingent in this context, as it was used by the philosophers, scientists, and literary figures of the time to refer to almost all manner of set phrases. Drawing from a variety of texts belonging to different genres, the article analyses the specifics of how the language and image components interact to create a hybrid semiotic complex. Studying the specifics of semiotic hybridisation as observed in the medieval texts is key to the further development of the historical phraseology as well, especially when it pertains to the issue of visualising persistent lexical complexes. Said significance derives from the fact that the so-called visualised phraseology may serve as a source for the historical phraseology research that would complement the phraseographical data, phraseology found in the literary work, and research insights. This research shows, on the one hand, how text and image of the early stages of the people’s culture and language development become one, and on the other hand how a set lexical unit and the image accompanying it synergise in a given hybrid textual space on both semantic and cognitive levels. Based on historical data, the article showcases how multimodality has become a complex semiotic phenomenon intrinsic to any society employing not only language, but other complex systems of signs as well. A complex lexico-semantic nature of the special semantics linguistic units being visualised is one of the key factors in rendering the interaction between these two modalities unique.

Formation of media competence of future teachers using media texts

The article is devoted to the problem of forming the media competence of future teachers, where the authors propose to use media texts of different types as the main tool. It provides detailed analysis of the views of scientists on the essence and content of the definition of “media competence of the individual”, which is interpreted today in line with the psychological, pedagogical, and technological approaches. As a result of the ascertaining section, a predominantly low level of the formation of the media competence of future teachers was determined, which necessitated the theoretical substantiation and implementation of a number of pedagogical conditions. These include: the formation of a positive motivation among future specialists for the use of media in the educational process; organization of an educational media environment in higher education institutions aimed at developing media competence among future teachers; attraction of future specialists to purposeful, creative media activity and the creation of their own media product. The research introduced the testing of such conditions which provided for the systematic work of students with media texts of various types (posts on social networks and comments to them, movies, cartoons, videos of classes, lessons, and other forms of work with students, webinars, scientific, educational, and other texts in the open access, audio recordings (music, songs, audio books), iconic signs (photos, drawings, infographics)). A number of effective media texts have been identified and introduced into the educational process from the point of view of the formation of media competence of future teachers

Semiotics of Advertising Communication in WEB 2.0 Network Social Services

The article is devoted to the study of semiotics in the advertising communication of web 2.0 network social services. The purpose of the article is to analyze the publications of various brands on social Internet services focused on communication with the consumer and the subsequent study of the features of the use of semiotics tools. The relevance of the article is due to the fact that the modern information society has increased interest in semiotic systems, including in the field of Internet communication. The modern vision of semiotics has gone beyond the traditional framework and defined it as part of global and local communication in web 2.0 social network services, not only between Internet users, but also in the areas of B2B and B2C. The study of the possibilities of semiotics in advertising communication on web 2.0 social platforms, using the example of search engine applications, the social network Instagram, and company sites, in this article is based on the works of R. Barthes, J. Baudrillard, Y. Lotman, and U. Eco. This material confirms our hypothesis that today, especially since the beginning of the pandemic, communication on web 2.0 services is not limited only to text with a picture/photos or videos, more and more often there are visualized scenes created with the help of graphic design with the use of symbols and iconic signs that are familiar to the consumer, which he easily decodes, since they are inscribed in his socio-cultural coordinate system. The innovation of the research is based on the fixation of modern criteria of advertising Internet communication: polycode, intertextuality and multimedia, used as a way of working with target audiences. The novelty of the material consists of the understanding that semiotics today is a new look not only at the branch of scientific knowledge, but also at the practical possibilities of sign systems in the digital age, when the sign becomes a part of the socio-cultural space, a trend of the global world, a tool for transmitting information, knowledge, positioning, a tool for manipulation, influence, and attracting attention. Thus, brands working with the audience in todays realities should take into account not only the product preferences of consumers, but also broadcast their social / civic activity.

Иконка-привеска с изображением святого Воина-всадника из раскопок Мангупского дворца. Древняя Русь или Византия?

Introduction. The article is devoted to the icon-pendant with the image of the horseman St. George the Warrior, discovered in 2020 in the cultural horizon of the late 13th–14th centuries at the research site of the Mangup’s Princely Palace. Methods. The study is complex. The traditional methods of art history analysis and the method of analogies, widely used in archaeological science, are used in the description and attribution of the sign icon. The dating of the product is established using one of the most important stratigraphic methods in archaeology. In explaining the historical context of the find, the available data from archaeological and narrative sources on the history and culture of Mangup at the end of the 13th–14th centuries are used. Analysis. The value of the icon, in addition to its clear archaeological context and the iconographic type of the holy rider-triumphant, which is rare for Byzantine applied art, lies in the expansion of our source base on the spread of the cult of St. George in the Late Byzantine period of the history of South-Western Crimea, represented before that mainly by the churches of Eski-Kermen and Mangup. Results. Despite the general proximity of the iconography and the technique of making the Mangup find and numerous similar products from the territory of Old Rus, there is no reason to consider it as an icon-pendant of Ancient-Russian origin. The conducted research definitely indicates a weak study of this category of Christian objects of personal piety on the territory of Byzantium, the lack of their cataloging and the study of special issues. In this regard, the conclusion that the icon belongs to the number of finds of the Byzantine circle from the cultural layer of the Mangup settlement, made in one of the provincialbyzantine centers, seems to be the most objective.

Jeden świat. Reklama społeczna w dobie pandemii

The article is an excerpt from a wider research project carried out by the author in October– December 2020, concerning advertising materials used by WHO and selected countries (Poland, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa) in social campaigns during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. This text presents one case study – a campaign used in Poland, comparing its messages with WHO advertising materials. The main thesis was taken from the thought of Ivan Krastev, who claims that the pandemic made everyone realize that all people are inhabitants of “One World” in the face of a global threat. The entire study used the triangulation of two research methods – case study and compositional interpretation by Gillian Rose. Roman Jakobson’s model of linguistic communication was used to examine the verbal layer of messages. In the linguistic layer of the messages, their considerable persuasiveness was assumed. In the visual layer, due to the simplicity of the form, it is limited to the compositional modality, with particular emphasis on colors and iconic signs. The text shows how important a role in communication, especially in times of a pandemic, is played by social advertising campaigns. Paradoxically, a pandemic that threatens humanity may also open up new, comparative areas of research on the effectiveness of mass communication means used in some countries, which can be successfully used in others.

Object and handling handshapes in 11 sign languages: towards a typology of the iconic use of the hands

Abstract This article looks at cross-linguistic variation in lexical iconicity, addressing the question of to what extent and how this variation is patterned. More than in spoken languages, iconicity is highly frequent in the lexicons of sign languages. It is also highly complex, in that often multiple motivated components jointly shape an iconic lexeme. Recent typological research on spoken languages finds tentative iconic patterning in a large number of basic lexical items, underlining once again the significance of iconicity for human language. The uncontested and widespread use of iconicity found in the lexicons of sign languages enables us to take typological research into lexical iconicity to the next level. Indeed, previous studies have shown cross-linguistic variation in: a) the use of embodying and handling handshapes in sign languages (mostly of European origin) and b) the frequency of space-based size depiction in African and European sign languages. The two types of variation may be interrelated, as handling handshapes may use space-based size depiction. In this study, we first replicate earlier studies on the distribution of embodying and handling handshapes, this time in a data set consisting of a relatively large set of sign languages (n = 11), most of which are used in Africa. The results confirm significant variation across these sign languages. These findings are then compared to the use of space-based size depiction, revealing that these patterns independently from the distribution of embodying/handling handshapes. We argue that the results call for expanding typological studies on representational strategies in iconic signs beyond the now relatively well studied instrument/manipulation alternation. Fine-grained analyses on a multitude of iconic features in signs are likely to reveal cross-linguistic variation in iconic tendencies in SL lexicons.

Iconicity emerges and is maintained in spoken language.

Iconicity is the property whereby signs (vocal or manual) resemble their referents. Iconic signs are easy to relate to the world, facilitating learning and processing. In this study, we examined whether the benefits of iconicity would lead to its emergence and to maintenance in language. We focused on shape iconicity (the association between rounded objects and round-sounding words like "bouba" and between spiky objects and spiky-sounding words like "kiki") and motion iconicity (the association between longer words and longer events). In Experiment 1, participants generated novel labels for round versus spiky shapes and long versus short movements (Experiment 1a: text, Experiment 1b: speech). Labels for each kind of stimulus differed in a way that was consistent with previous studies of iconicity. This suggests that iconicity emerges even on a completely unconstrainted task. In Experiment 2 (Experiment 2a: text, Experiment 2b: speech), we simulated language change in the laboratory (as iterated learning) and found that both forms of iconicity were introduced and maintained through generations of language users. Thus, we demonstrate the emergence of iconicity in spoken languages, and we argue that these results reflect a pressure for language systems to be referential, which favors iconic forms in the cultural evolution of language (at least up to a point where it is balanced by other pressures, e.g., discriminability). This can explain why we have iconicity across natural languages and may have implications for debates on language origins. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).