Icelandic Identity Research Articles

Crafting racism, civilization, and margins through plaster busts of Icelanders

ABSTRACT In the mid-nineteenth century, Iceland’s small population under Danish rule tried establishing itself as part of Europe's civilized and progressive population. The production of racist texts and images that emphasized Iceland's natural place with ‘progressive’ European nations reflect Iceland's relationship with colonialism and the anxieties of being categorized with colonized others. The paper focuses on plaster casts of Icelandic faces, which were a part of collections meant to showcase racial diversity in the late nineteenth century in France and Spain. The analysis of the making and commercialization of the busts reflects one of the multiple ways Iceland was engaged in a world of imperialism and colonialism, underlining Iceland's ambiguous status in mid-nineteenth century Europe as a marginal European country. This status shaped Icelandic identity during the 19th and twentieth century, characterized by a strong need to position themselves as civilized subjects.

Landscape Painting and the Construction of “Icelandicness”: Icelandic Modern National Art vis-à-vis its Danish Origins

The article constitutes an attempt at developing a new approach to Icelandic national art, supported by an analysis of its role in the process of constructing “Icelandicness” and the Icelandic identity. It enters a dialogue with the study Kryptokoloniale landskaber: tid, sted og rum i billeder af islandsk landskab 1874–2011 by Ann-Sofie Nielsen Gremaud, with a concurrent focus on Icelandic landscape painting of the period 1874–1944 and its relation to Danish art. The Nordic, and especially the Icelandic art was routinely overlooked in the European artistic and historical narration, including the Polish scholarly environment, but it is well worthy of a closer scrutiny. Two fundamental assumptions that define the analysis presented herein are that the modern national art of Iceland derives from the Academic tradition in Denmark and that, concurrently, Icelandic artists participated in the process of developing national identity in opposition to the Danish model. In order to find confirmation for the posed theses, methodologies close to post-colonialism and crypto-colonialism have been used, as well as ones inspired by imagology and based on interdisciplinary research in the fields of art history, history, anthropology and cultural studies.

Discourse in Old Norse Literature

Discourse in Old Norse Literature

"Where Are You From?": Racism and the Normalization of Whiteness in Iceland

Within European and Nordic contexts, scholars have disputed how to understand racism and racialization in a context historically different from the American one. While the analysis below underlines the global characteristics and thus mobility of racist discourse, the article seeks to show how racist classifications are understood in different localities. This article explores, in particular, the intersection of race and national identity in Iceland. The primary data consists of interviews with fifteen adults who are identified as mixed, in terms of both race and origin. The analysis shows that Icelandic identity is strongly normalized as a White identity, with the Icelandic body always assumed to be “white.” Thus, by definition, “non-white” bodies must be from somewhere else. However, the interviews also indicate that while constantly having to explain themselves as non-White, these “mixed-race” individuals did not feel rejected as Icelandic nor strongly discriminated against, which contrasts with experiences from other European countries. Finally, the discussion focuses on Iceland’s outward image and the recent branding of Iceland as a destination by the tourism industry, which works toward further racialization of the Icelandic population as a White population.

Becoming Nordic in Brazil: Whiteness and Icelandic Heritage in Brazilian Identity Making

<div class="page" title="Page 1"><div class="section">In this article, we focus on whiteness as an historically shifting phenomenon by analysing Brazilian recent emphasis on Icelandic ancestry, demonstrating the intersection of whiteness, class and ethnicity. A small group of Icelanders were among the millions migrating to Brazil around the latter half of the nineteenth century. The Icelandic migrants did not emphasise their Icelandic identity but affiliated themselves with Germans and other favoured immigrant groups. More than 130 years later, a group of Brazilians of Icelandic descent founded the Iceland Brazil Association to celebrate the Icelandic part of their ancestry. Since then, both their membership and interest in Iceland have grown. We ask how this emphasis on Icelandic ancestry intersects with an increased reification of Icelandic identity as ‘white’ identity. The discussion shows that the emphasis on Icelandic ethnic markers is new in Brazil and needs to be understood within the theorisation of Brazilian national and racialised identity.</div></div>

Land, Nation and Tourist

Land is central to Icelandic identity. It is birthright, heritage, a site of memory and belonging; mountains and fjords are the stuff on which Icelandic dreams are made. Land is made culture through story and song, told at family gatherings, and sung at schools and on hiking trips. Icelandic identity was built on this imagining, coupled to a vision of Icelanders as an exceptional people, a Viking race. The events of the Global Financial Crisis (GFC), which exposed institutional corruption, caused many Icelanders to doubt the Viking image. At the same time, Iceland has been invaded by tourists. This article, based on participant observation, a survey and interviews, argues that one significant effect of the post-GFC foreign invasion has been a transformation of the cultural and moral order in Iceland, away from the boasting Viking and towards a new set of values within which land and nature occupy an even more central place.

A Sense of Belonging: ‘Morkinskinna’ and Icelandic Identity, c. 1220 by Jakobsson, Ármann

Reviewed by: A Sense of Belonging: ‘Morkinskinna’ and Icelandic Identity, c. 1220 by Jakobsson, Ármann Jane-Anne Denison Jakobsson, Ármann, A Sense of Belonging: ‘Morkinskinna’ and Icelandic Identity, c. 1220 (Viking Collection, 22), Odense, University Press of Southern Denmark, 2014; cloth; pp. 406; R.R.P. DKK375.00; ISBN 9788776748456. In 2011, Ármann Jakobsson and Þórður Ingi Guðjónsson presented the academic world with their work on Morkinskinna, the thirteenth-century manuscript containing an Icelandic saga depicting the history of Norwegian kings from Magnus I to Sigurdr II. Jakobsson has now extended access to his research on the Morkinskinna manuscript to an international audience through the assistance of translator Frederik Heinemann. The result is A Sense of Belonging: Morkinskinna and Icelandic Identity, c. 1220, in which Jakobsson successfully meets his goal to explore the saga. Throughout the book, Jakobsson asserts that scholars of Icelandic sagas have paid little attention to Morkinskinna, and he uses it to present his most recent attempt to explore the saga as a whole. He shows that scholars should consider the saga within a historical framework as much as within a literary one, and that the main purpose of the saga is to present the relationships between the early medieval Icelandic people and the kings of Norway. Rather than comparing the saga to others, he concentrates on using the manuscript as the main source material, analysing what little information is known about its origins and its place within medieval narrative structures. How the saga author presents portraits of Icelanders, Norwegian kings and their societies within its pages, and how the saga demonstrates methods of Icelandic storytelling are all addressed, with Jakobsson covering such matters in detail. Jakobsson demonstrates that Morkinskinna is not simply a collection of stories [End Page 177] about the past. Rather, it is an exploration of Icelandic identity at the time of its commitment to manuscript. Ideas such as how Icelanders viewed themselves outside Iceland are discussed. Jakobsson also considers how the author makes it clear to the audience that the saga within Morkinskinna is historical and based on reliable sources. He asserts that simultaneously, the saga author was aware of the importance of the art of narrative in delivering the stories found within it. Commendably, Jakobsson has ensured that his primary references are accessible to readers with little or no knowledge of the Icelandic language, or for those readers who do not have easy access to a translation of Morkinskinna. All passages from the manuscript have been translated into English within the text. Footnotes are provided where necessary and have not been overdone, as can sometimes be the case in discussions of the sagas. The extensive bibliography demonstrates Jakobsson’s exceptional knowledge of previous research on the Morkinskinna manuscript, as well as other sagas. Jakobsson is certainly passionate about Morkinskinna, having dedicated over twenty years of research to the manuscript, and it shows in his latest book. His ideas certainly give a fresh view of the saga. This book should inspire others to consider Morkinskinna worth a new look. Any reader with an interest in the Icelandic sagas, medieval courtly narratives, or early Norwegian history will find his insights into this under-appreciated manuscript appealing. Jane-Anne Denison University of the Highlands and Islands Copyright © 2017 Jane-Anne Denison

A Sense of Belonging: Morkinskinna and Icelandic Identity

A Sense of Belonging: <i>Morkinskinna</i> and Icelandic Identity

Iceland’s External Affairs from the Napoleonic Era to the occupation of Denmark: Danish and British Shelter

This paper argues that Iceland enjoyed essential shelter, for its development and prosperity, provided by Denmark and Britain. Societal relations with Copenhagen were of fundamental importance in the preservation and evolution of Icelandic identity and culture, providing the foundation of the modern society and leading to the establishment of the Icelandic state. Danish financial backups created the basis for the island’s economic prosperity in the 20th century. Moreover, Denmark provided partial political shelter in terms of significant diplomatic support in guaranteeing trade agreements with other states. Also, Denmark led by example and Iceland followed its foreign policy. On the other hand, Denmark failed to provide Iceland with protection of its land and waters and economic cover when it was in most need. Moreover, the economic cover it did provide was, at times, highly costly. Denmark had been downgraded to a small European power in the post-Napoleonic period. In practice, Britain was in control over the North Atlantic. It guaranteed Iceland’s neutrality and connection to the outside world and markets when the Danish authorities failed in these areas, as long as British interests were also served. Nor did British protection come without cost. Accordingly, this paper confirms the common claim of small-state studies that small states are at the mercy of their larger neighbours. Moreover, our findings indicate that Iceland’s growing autonomy did not affect its need for political, economic and societal cover.

Review: A sense of belonging: Morkinskinna and Icelandic identity, c. 1220

Ármann Jakobsson: A sense of belonging: Morkinskinna and Icelandic identity, c. 1220. Translated by Fredrik Heinemann. The Viking collection: studies in Northern civilization 22. University Press of Southern Denmark, Odense 2014. Pp. 406. ISBN 978-87-7674-845-6.

Sigrgarðs saga frækna: A normalised text, translation, and introduction

ABSTRACT: This article provides the first complete translation into English of the fifteenth-century Icelandic romance Sigrgarðs saga frækna [the saga of Sigrgarðr the Valiant], along with a normalised edition of the earliest manuscripts based on that of Agnete Loth. The introduction shows that the saga artfully combines material from both the learned tradition of romances and exempla, and from traditional wonder-tales, showing an unusual warmth towards low-status genres and characters. It argues that the setting of the story articulates Icelandic identity by associating it with the otherworldly setting of the heroes’ climactic quest, and studies the constructions of gender implicit in the saga. While clearly heteronormative and potentially patriarchal in its ideological commitments, the saga probes and arguably destabilises the patriarchal culture of late medieval Iceland.

Negotiating white Icelandic identity: multiculturalism and colonial identity formations

Post-colonial scholars have emphasized the need to explore the ways in which colonial contact shaped both the colonized and colonizers; that is, how European identities were formulated in relation to imperial projects. Colonial Europe itself has to be deconstructed, looking at similarities and variability within different countries. This article explores the construction of ‘white’ Icelandic identity in historical and contemporary discourses. The article shows that even though Iceland did not participate directly in the nineteenth century colonial project, the interwoven racial, gendered and nationalistic ideologies associated with the colonial project were very much a part of Icelandic identity in the nineteenth and early twentieth century as shaped by parallel discourses in Europe. Analysis of contemporary blog sites reflects the increasingly complex manifestations of racism in contemporary Iceland. Whiteness continues to be invisible as a position of power to many contemporary Icelanders. Interestingly, despite being few in numbers in Iceland, Muslims are increasingly constructed in the media as a threat in a similar way as in the rest of Europe.

The loss of innocence: The Icelandic fnancial crisis and colonial past (Respond to this article at http://www.therai.org.uk/at/debate)

Iceland's increased involvement in global economic markets in the early 2000s came to a sudden halt in 2008, when the economic crisis hit Iceland severely. I focus on how this crisis was understood in Iceland as continuous with romantic nationalist narratives of the past. Nationalism in the early 20th century helped make sense of foreign investments in the boom period, building on a masculine image of the ‘Viking’ and specific characteristics of ‘the’ Icelanders. Icelanders’ take on Danish rule of Iceland up to the mid‐20th century continues to be relevant to understanding Icelandic identity, indicating how the colonial and imperialist period continues to haunt the present.

Social Structures and Identity in Early Iceland

Iceland differed from other Norse colonies as it lacked social structures found elsewhere, but also because the Icelanders established their own complex social structures. This article examines aspects of these social structures to determine how they contributed to a new Icelandic identity. The emergence of these social structures may be attributed to factors such as new patterns of social liability that may have developed in response to the unusually scattered population. The settlement pattern may have contributed to the significance of the role of law in early Iceland: a legal framework was required to manage the settlers’ claims and rights to the land. There emerged in Iceland a sense of what defined the settlers, its basis being the law and ‘legal attachment’. The uniqueness of Iceland’s social structures was intertwined with the landnám itself. It was the unsettled land that gave the Icelanders the freedom to create their society.

Nature and Nation: National Identity and Environmentalism in Icelandic Popular Music Video and Music Documentary

Many Icelandic musicians have claimed that the Icelandic popular music scene has helped create a new Icelandic identity since the nation gained independence in 1944. This paper examines the character of that identity and its relationship to wider societal concerns in contemporary Iceland, in particular environmental politics and the conflation of nation with nature. This analysis reveals the ways in which popular music and its moving image are shaped by, and the varied responses they offer to, nationalism and globalisation.

“PURE MANLINESS”: THE COLONIAL PROJECT AND AFRICA'S IMAGE IN NINETEENTH CENTURY ICELAND

Iceland did not participate directly in the nineteenth century colonial project, but the interwoven racial, gendered, and nationalistic ideologies associated with the colonial project were very much a part of Icelandic identity as shaped by nationalist and imperialist discourses in Europe. This article focuses on representations of Africa in nineteenth century Iceland, claiming that the Icelandic discussions of Africa were not so much concerned with the continent itself, but through descriptions of the exploration and colonization of Africa, European masculinities were affirmed and Icelanders “natural” location within that category. This was particularly important at times when Iceland was seeking independence and acceptance as a “white” European country. I stress these nineteenth century texts as gendered testimonies that show the interaction of various poles of identity, being written by white, Icelandic men and originating from a marginal country within Europe.