Ice Resurfacer Research Articles

Carbon Monoxide Exposure in Youth Ice Hockey.

To examine the effect of ice resurfacer type on carboxyhemoglobin levels in youth hockey players. We hypothesized that players in arenas with electric resurfacers would have normal, stable carboxyhemoglobin levels during games, whereas those in arenas with internal combustion engine (IC) resurfacers would have an increase in carboxyhemoglobin levels. Prospective cohort study. Enclosed ice arenas in the northeastern United States. Convenience sample of players aged 8 to 18 years old in 16 games at different arenas. Eight arenas (37 players) used an IC ice resurfacer and 8 arenas (36 players) an electric resurfacer. Carboxyhemoglobin levels (SpCO) were measured using a pulse CO-oximeter before and after the game. Arena air was tested for carbon monoxide (CO) using a metered gas detector. Players completed symptom questionnaires. The change in SpCO from pregame to postgame was compared between players at arenas with electric versus IC resurfacers. Carbon monoxide was present at 6 of 8 arenas using IC resurfacers, levels ranged from 4 to 42 parts per million. Carbon monoxide was not found at arenas with electric resurfacers. Players at arenas with IC resurfacers had higher median pregame SpCO levels compared with those at electric arenas (4.3% vs 1%, P < 0.01). Players in the IC group also had a significant increase in their SpCO level during a hockey game compared with those in the electric group (2.8% vs 1%, P = 0.01). There were no significant differences in symptom scores. Players at arenas operating IC resurfacers had significantly higher SpCO levels. Youth hockey players in arenas with IC resurfacers have an increase in carboxyhemoglobin during games and have elevated baseline carboxyhemoglobin levels compared with players at arenas with electric resurfacers. Electric resurfacers decrease the risk of CO exposure.

Exposure assessment of non-electric ice resurfacer operators in indoor ice rinks: a pilot study.

Exposure of ice resurfacer operators to indoor air contaminants was measured in six indoor ice arenas. A standardized questionnaire on technical and operational features was employed and indoor airborne concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and total volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were measured. Air samples were collected using a range of direct reading instruments attached to the driver's seat of the resurfacer. The range of mean exposure concentrations via positional sampling (i.e. as close as able to the operator's breathing zone) were 5.7-7.4ppm, 694-2171ppm, <0.5 to 0.5ppm, and<0.1 to 0.2ppm, for CO, CO2, NO, and NO2, respectively. Exposure levels for SO2 and VOC were below detection. Overall, each of the measured indoor air contaminants was found to be below its respective occupational exposure limits (OEL), suggesting that the risk of hazardous exposure is low. The use of natural gas as a fuel source is believed to contribute to low contaminant concentrations.

Importance of ice for the «White Olympics»

Organization of any winter Olympic game, often called as «White Olympics», requires interfacing between sports, technology and glaciology. History of the Olympic winter games and the Norwegian figure skater Sonia Henie, first and the only three-time Olympic champion (1928, 1932, 1936) in ladies figure skating, is presented in the article. Leaving the amateurish sport, Henie became a Hollywood star of the ballet on ice. She was introduced to the inventor Frank Zamboni, who created the ice re-surfacer (the ice-cleaning combine) to restore the ice on skating rinks. Using the combine by Henie during her tours in the United States served to advertise this machine, and the name Zamboni had become a trademark for machines «Zamboni».

Assessment of the impact of the ice resurfacer the air quality in the hall of an indoor ice rink

Assessment of the impact of the ice resurfacer the air quality in the hall of an indoor ice rink

Exposure to Elevated Carbon Monoxide Levels at an Indoor Ice Arena--Wisconsin, 2014.

On December 13, 2014, the emergency management system in Lake Delton, Wisconsin, was notified when a male hockey player aged 20 years lost consciousness after participation in an indoor hockey tournament that included approximately 50 hockey players and 100 other attendees. Elevated levels of carbon monoxide (CO) (range = 45 ppm-165 ppm) were detected by the fire department inside the arena. The emergency management system encouraged all players and attendees to seek medical evaluation for possible CO poisoning. The Wisconsin Department of Health Services (WDHS) conducted an epidemiologic investigation to determine what caused the exposure and to recommend preventive strategies. Investigators abstracted medical records from area emergency departments (EDs) for patients who sought care for CO exposure during December 13-14, 2014, conducted a follow-up survey of ED patients approximately 2 months after the event, and conducted informant interviews. Ninety-two persons sought ED evaluation for possible CO exposure, all of whom were tested for CO poisoning. Seventy-four (80%) patients had blood carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) levels consistent with CO poisoning; 32 (43%) CO poisoning cases were among hockey players. On December 15, the CO emissions from the propane-fueled ice resurfacer were demonstrated to be 4.8% of total emissions when actively resurfacing and 2.3% when idling, both above the optimal range of 0.5%-1.0%. Incomplete fuel combustion by the ice resurfacer was the most likely source of elevated CO. CO poisonings in ice arenas can be prevented through regular maintenance of ice resurfacers, installation of CO detectors, and provision of adequate ventilation.

Health risk assessment of indoor air pollution in Finnish ice arenas

Poor indoor air quality and epidemic carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) poisonings due to exhaust emissions from ice resurfacers have been continuously reported from enclosed ice arenas for over 30 years. The health risks in users of Finnish ice arenas were analysed in three ways: (1) evaluation of four cases of epidemic CO poisonings, (2) modelling the association between NO2 exposure and respiratory symptoms among junior ice hockey players, and (3) estimation of the number of arena users at risk of breathing poor quality air due to non-compliance of ice arenas with recommended abatement measures. The common causes for the CO poisonings involving over 300 subjects were large emissions from propane-fuelled ice resurfacer, small arena volume, negligible ventilation, and very recent opening of the arena. Rhinitis (prevalence 18.3%) and cough (13.7%) during or after training or game were significantly associated with the estimated personal NO2 exposure of young hockey players (n=793) to average concentrations ranging from 21 to 1176 μg/m3 in their home arena. During a 6-year follow-up of an intensive information campaign the portion of electric resurfacers increased from 9% to 27%, and that of emission control technology on propane-fuelled resurfacers increased from 13% to 84%. The portion of inadequately ventilated arenas decreased from 34% to 25%. However, 48% of the investigated Finnish ice arenas (n=125) did not fully comply with the non-regulatory recommendations. Consequently, 20000 daily users of ice arenas were estimated to remain in 2001 at risk of breathing poor quality air. Modern small and inadequately ventilated ice arenas pose their users (mostly children and young adults) at risk of breathing poor quality air and suffering from acute adverse health effects. Governmental regulations are needed worldwide to ensure safe sports in enclosed ice arenas.

Chronic Cough and Dyspnea in Ice Hockey Players After an Acute Exposure to Combustion Products of a Faulty Ice Resurfacer

The aim of this study was to characterize pulmonary function and radiologic testing in ice hockey players after exposure to combustion products of a faulty ice resurfacer. Our patients were 16 previously healthy hockey players who developed chronic cough and dyspnea after exposure. Symptom questionnaires, pulmonary function tests (PFTs), bronchoprovocation testing, cardiopulmonary exercise testing, high-resolution computed tomography (CT) imaging, and impulse oscillometry (IOS) were all used. A normal group was used for PFTs and IOS controls. Patients had onset of cough within 72 h of exposure. Ninety-two percent complained of dyspnea, 75% chest pain, and 33% hemoptysis. Eight percent were initially hospitalized for their symptoms. Eighty-five percent were treated with systemic steroids and 39% with inhaled bronchodilators. Six months postexposure, 54% complained of cough and 46% complained of dyspnea on exertion. All patients had normal PFTs; 8.3% had a significant bronchodilator response. All had normal exercise tests (mean VO2max = 90 +/- 3% predicted) and chest CTs. With IOS, 80% had a significant bronchodilator response (decreased resistance > 12% and SD score > 1; mean change = 21.1 +/- 9.9%, mean SD score = 3.1 +/- 2.5). No correlation existed between changes in resistance or reactance and spirometric values. Patient symptoms correlated significantly with bronchodilator response on IOS resistance (R=0.61, p=0.03). More than 50% of patients exposed to the combustion products of a faulty ice resurfacer remained symptomatic six months after exposure. Despite persistence of symptoms, conventional pulmonary function tests and radiologic evaluation did not reveal airway abnormalities. IOS showed evidence of increased airway resistance and small-airway disease, which correlated with patient symptoms.

HOCKEY PLAYERS EXPOSED TO ICE RESURFACER EMISSIONS OUTSIDE THE-ICE RINK-PENNSYLVANIA, 2002.

Background The public health impact of carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide exposure in indoor ice arenas is well documented. Still, not all states have guidelines regulating ice-resurfacing machine exhaust emissions. The CDC assisted the State of Pennsylvania in an epidemiologic investigation of an incident occurring at a single ice rink to identify risk factors for respiratory and pulmonary illness among amateur hockey players. Methods We conducted phone interviews to investigate risk factors. A probable case was defined as any hockey player present at the ice rink on 09/29/2002 who reported two or more respiratory symptoms during the game. A confirmed case was a probable case who reported hemoptysis. A NIOSH investigation team undertook environmental sampling and evaluation. Results Interviews indicated that 21 of 44 players (48%) were probable cases and 9 (20%) were confirmed cases. Regression analysis indicated that neither confirmed nor probable case status was significantly associated with the amount of time spent on the ice. Probable (OR=28.5; 95%CI = 5.59-145.44), and confirmed (OR = 14.54; 95%CI = 1.65-128.41) cases were significantly more likely to have used the locker room immediately adjacent to the heater room, where the ice resurfacer was parked, and those who spent over 90 minutes inside the locker room were more likely to develop hemoptysis (OR = 6.88; 95%CI = 0.93-50.78). This association was independent of asthma status. The NIOSH evaluation documented a gap in the ventilation system that extracted air from the heater room into the adjacent locker room. Conclusions Hockey players are not only at risk of exhaust exposure while on the ice surface, but also in the locker rooms. Air quality monitoring in closed ice arenas should include rooms potentially exposed to emissions from the ice-resurfacing machine.

Indoor air quality in ice skating rinks in Hong Kong

Indoor air quality in ice skating rinks has become a public concern due to the use of propane- or gasoline-powered ice resurfacers and edgers. In this study, the indoor air quality in three ice rinks with different volumes and resurfacer power sources (propane and gasoline) was monitored during usual operating hours. The measurements included continuous recording of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2), total volatile organic compounds (TVOC), particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 μm (PM 2.5), particulate matter with diameter less than 10 μm (PM 10), nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), nitrogen oxide (NO x ), and sulfur dioxide (SO 2). The average CO, CO 2, and TVOC concentrations ranged from 3190 to 6749 μg/m 3, 851 to 1329 ppm, and 550 to 765 μg/m 3, respectively. The average NO and NO 2 concentrations ranged from 69 to 1006 μg/m 3 and 58 to 242 μg/m 3, respectively. The highest CO and TVOC levels were observed in the ice rink which a gasoline-fueled resurfacer was used. The highest NO and NO 2 levels were recorded in the ice rink with propane-fueled ice resurfacers. The air quality parameters of PM 2.5, PM 10, and SO 2 were fully acceptable in these ice rinks according to HKIAQO standards. Overall, ice resurfacers with combustion engines cause indoor air pollution in ice rinks in Hong Kong. This conclusion is similar to those of previous studies in Europe and North America.

Effect of varying the combustion parameters on the emissions of carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gases from propane-fueled vehicles.

Propane-fueled forklifts are one source of carbon monoxide (CO) contamination of workplace air. The previous study carried out by the Quebec Occupational Health and Safety Research Institute dealt with worker exposure to CO during forklift use in buildings. It recommends that exhaust gas emissions be kept below a 1 percent concentration. However, this control has not produced a significant reduction in worker exposure to CO, when factors (ventilation, type of work tasks, and management of vehicle fleet) specific to companies are taken into account. Consequently, a reduction in CO emissions below the threshold of 0.3 percent should be considered. The experience acquired with propane-fueled ice resurfacers can be used to determine the effect of combustion parameters on exhaust gas emissions. It is known that a reduction in CO emissions from ice resurfacers resulted in the appearance of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and eventually in nitrogen dioxide (NO2) poisoning. Few publications present NOx results in relation to the CO measured in the exhaust gases of propane-fueled vehicles. The objective of this study is to define the level to which CO emissions can be reduced without increasing NOx concentrations. This real-situation study quantified the CO, NO, and NOx in the exhaust gases of a fleet of propane-fueled forklifts in relation to the mixture ratio. The results show the impact of the motor speed and mixture ratio on the CO, NO, and NO2 concentrations. They confirm an increase in NOx concentrations when CO concentrations are reduced. They also show that proper maintenance of forklifts combined with optimal adjustments can reduce CO and NOx emissions. The study proposes a compromise between CO and NOx emissions by taking into account worker health and safety as well as vehicle performance. Monitoring must be done to control air quality in work areas and worker exposure to CO and NO2. A forklift preventive maintenance program and general building ventilation are the favored and recommended means of control.

Determinants of nitrogen dioxide concentrations in indoor ice skating rinks.

The combination of poor ventilation and fuel-powered ice resurfacers has resulted in elevated nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations in many indoor ice skating rinks. This study examined the factors influencing concentrations and the effects of various engineering controls in ice rinks with different resurfacer fuels. Indoor NO2 concentrations were measured in 19 enclosed ice skating rinks over 3 winters by means of passive samplers, with 1-week average measurements during the first winter pilot study and single-day working-hour measurements in the final 2 winters. Personal exposures to drivers also were assessed during the last winter. Rinks in which propane-fueled resurfacers were used had a daily mean indoor NO2 concentration of 206 ppb, compared with 132 ppb for gasoline-fueled and 37 ppb for electric-powered resurfacers. Engineering controls, such as increased ventilation and resurfacer tuning, reduced NO2 concentrations by 65% on average, but outcomes varied widely, and concentrations increased in subsequent months. Electric ice resurfacers, increased ventilation, or emission control systems are recommended to protect the health of workers and patrons, with surveillance programs proposed to track implementation and maintain an observer effect.

Two-year follow-up study of nonregulatory recommendations for better air quality in indoor ice arenas

A standardized questionnaire was used in a two-year follow-up study to test the effectiveness of non-regulatory recommendations to improve indoor air quality of 103 ice arenas in Finland. In addition, the performance of a state-of-the-art emission control technology (ECT) on propane-fueled resurfacers was evaluated by measuring the one-week average nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) concentration in a small sample of arenas. The number of retrofitted ECT on propane-fueled resurfacers increased from 6 to 37 (8% to 37% of ice arenas) and the number of electric resurfacers from 7 to 9 (both 9% of arenas) in 1994–1996. At the same time, the prevalence of inadequate ventilation increased among the most susceptible small arenas (volume <30 000 m 3) from 11 (31%) to 19 (38%). Combustion-powered resurfacers (88%) and inadequate ventilation (24%) were prevalent also among the 17 new arenas built in 1994–1996. ECT resurfacers significantly decreased the mean indoor NO 2 concentration of eleven arenas from 650 μg/m 3 to 147 μg/m 3. Thus, retrofitting resurfacers with ECT seems to be a feasible mitigation option to improve indoor air quality in ice arenas, but the ultimate solution is an electric ice resurfacer. Non-regulatory recommendations seem to be partially effective in abatement against the air quality problems, but additional regulatory measures are needed for full compliance in all arenas.

Contribution of technical and operational factors to nitrogen dioxide concentration in indoor ice arenas

A standardized questionnaire on technical and operational features and an indoor measurement of one-week average nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) concentration were used in a study of 69 Finnish ice arenas. The weekly NO 2 concentration ranged between 2 and 1838 μg/m 3 (arithmetic mean 332 μg/m 3) and it was significantly associated with the power source/fuel of the ice resurfacer (p =0.0001). The mean NO 2 concentrations in arenas with propane-, gasoline-, or electrically-powered resurfacers were 396, 283, and 25 μg/m 3, respectively. Statistical modeling explained 70–75% of the total variation in the indoor:outdoor ( I O ) ratio of NO 2 and it indicated that the resurfacer power source/fuel and the arena volume were the strongest contributing factors. The use of ventilation, the number of resurfacings, and the presence of a catalytic converter on a resurfacer contributed much less to the I O ratio. The results suggest that it is feasible to focus nation-wide abatement measures on the power source of the ice resurfacer (electric engine, reduction in combustion engine emissions).

Improvement of Air Quality in a Small Indoor Ice Arena by Effective Emission Control in Ice Resurfacers

ABSTRACT The effectiveness of a new emission control system in the ice resurfacer was tested in an exhaust gas emission laboratory, and the improvement of the air quality in a small, enclosed ice arena was demonstrated in a 4.5-month follow-up study. The emission control system consisted of a lambda sensor-controlled fuel supply and a three-way metallic catalyst that were applied to a propane-fueled resurfacer. In the laboratory tests, the engine emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and nitrogen oxides (NO ) reduced simultaneously by 91, 90, and 96%, respectively. During the air quality follow-up the median 1-hour average nitrogen dioxide (N02) concentration inside the ice arena decreased from 430 ug/m3 (230ppb) to 58 ug/m3 (31 ppb), and that of CO decreased from 4.4 mg/m3 (3.8 ppm) to 1.5 mg/m3 (1.3 ppm). The new emission control system proved to be a feasible, reliable, and effective means to improve the indoor air quality in the ice arena. However, continuous mechanical ventilation was necessary during all business hours in order to achieve and maintain a fully acceptable air quality with this technology.

Characterization of Air Quality Problems in Five Finnish Indoor Ice Arenas

ABSTRACT The air quality in five Finnish ice arenas with different volumes, ventilation systems, and resurfacer power sources (propane, gasoline, electric) was monitored during a usual training evening and a standardized, simulated ice hockey game. The measurements included continuous recording of carbon monoxide (CO), nitric oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations, and sampling and analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Emissions from the ice resurfacers with combustion engines caused indoor air quality problems in all ice arenas. The highest 1-hour average CO and NO2 concentrations ranged from 20 to 33 mg/m3 (17 to 29 ppm) and 270 to 7440 µg/m3 (0.14 to 3.96 ppm), respectively. The 3-hour total VOC concentrations ranged from 150 to 1200 µg/m3. The highest CO and VOC levels were measured in the arena in which a gasoline-fueled resurfacer was used. The highest NO2 levels were measured in small ice arenas with propane-fueled ice resurfacers and insufficient ventilation. In these arenas, the indoor NO2 levels were about 100 times the levels measured in ambient outdoor air, and the highest 1-hour concentrations were about 20 times the national and World Health Organization (WHO) health-based air quality guidelines. The air quality was fully acceptable only in the arena with an electric resurfacer. The present study showed that the air quality problems of indoor ice arenas may vary with the fuel type of resurfacer and the volume and ventilation of arena building. It also confirmed that there are severe air quality problems in Finnish ice arenas similar to those previously described in North America.

Surveillance of indoor air quality in ice skating rinks

Indoor nitrogen dioxide concentrations in 19 ice skating rinks in the greater. Boston area were monitored for one week each month, over a four-month period. Nitrogen dioxide was selected as an indicator of indoor air quality, and NO 2 samples were placed in two locations within each rink. Rinks with higher NO 2 levels (in excess of 200 nL/L), under normal operation, in the first monitoring week were mitigated with changes in ventilation system operation in the subsequent months. After the first monitoring period, only two rinks had NO 2 levels above 200 nL/L. It was suspected that high levels in these two rinks may have been related to improper ventilation. While high NO 2 concentrations were found in the ice skating rinks with propane-powered ice resurfacers, other studies indicate that combustion fuels can also result in elevated indoor concentrations. In order to achieve healthful air quality in indoor ice rinks, it may be necessary to: 1) monitor indoor pollution on a continuous or routine basis; 2) educate rink managers on proper ventilation procedures; and 3) test ventilation systems to ensure that their design and operation are effective.

An Outbreak of Nitrogen Dioxide—Induced Respiratory Illness Among Ice Hockey Players

During February 1987 an outbreak of nitrogen dioxide-induced respiratory illness occurred among players and spectators of two high school hockey games played at an indoor ice arena in Minnesota. The source of the nitrogen dioxide was the malfunctioning engine of the ice resurfacer. Case patients experienced acute onset of cough, hemoptysis, and/or dyspnea during, or within 48 hours of attending, a hockey game. One hundred sixteen cases were identified among hockey players, cheerleaders, and band members who attended the two games. Members of two hockey teams had spirometry performed at 10 days and 2 months after exposure; no significant compromise in lung function was documented. Nitrogen dioxide exposure in indoor ice arenas may be more common than currently is recognized; only three states require routine monitoring of air quality in ice arenas, and the respiratory symptoms caused by exposure to nitrogen dioxide are nonspecific and easily misdiagnosed.