Ice Motion Research Articles

Strength Assessment and Restoration of RC Structures by Structural Health Monitoring Techniques

Fundamentally, concrete is extensively used as structure material because of the truth of its over the top quality cost extent in various applications. Significant improvements usually are foreseen to deftly inconvenience-free providers over the range of its inferred arrangement life. Regardless, these wants are not perceived in multiple revisions given the truth of assistant insufficiency, material rot, unanticipated loadings or physical wickedness, and subsequently, Civil structures like structures, dams, ranges, etc. are presented to steady deterioration all through the long haul. This level of damage or disintegrating depends on the unimaginable substances and artistry at each the structure stage. The breaking down of advancements can be a last result of the extent of factors far-reaching radiator hurt, ice movement, substance attack, utilization of steel, etc. at some stage in the structure's lifestyle scope. The adequacy assessment is consequently essential for finding the construction's contemporary convenience and its expansion for future developments or alterations in its utilization. Such an evaluation can be finished using the methodologies: a) Visual evaluation, b) Non-Destructive Testing c) Partial Destructive Testing. Also, it changes into essential for structures hit with the guide of a seismic quake, a bomb sway, or any exceptional calamity. All around, Soundness evaluation to be executed for improvements which are navigated 15 years of age.

Unusual drift behaviour of multi-year sea ice in the Beaufort Sea during summer 2018

In summer 2018, thick sea ice blocked the mouth of the Amundsen Gulf (AG), Canada, obstructing shipping through the North-west Passage. This study analysed multi-year ice motion to investigate the source of this thick ice and the reasons for its unusual movement. For this purpose, a daily multi-year ice distribution product was generated by ice tracking using gridded daily sea-ice velocities (2003–2018) derived from the AMSR-E and AMSR-2 data. From autumn 2017 to summer 2018, the area of multi-year ice extended westward to the Beaufort Sea and then migrated towards the AG mouth. The primary cause of the unusual ice cover was anomalous AG-ward wind in September 2018. It is known that multi-year ice has become increasingly moveable over the past decades, as indicated by the increasing wind factor (i.e., ratio of ice-drift speed and wind speed), but the unusual ice motion in the summer of 2018 cannot be explainable by the wind factor alone. Accurately, predicting monthly wind and monitoring old thick ice will reduce the risk posed by thick Arctic sea ice to shipping.

Antarctic ecosystem responses following ice‐shelf collapse and iceberg calving: Science review and future research

AbstractThe calving of A‐68, the 5,800‐km2, 1‐trillion‐ton iceberg shed from the Larsen C Ice Shelf in July 2017, is one of over 10 significant ice‐shelf loss events in the past few decades resulting from rapid warming around the Antarctic Peninsula. The rapid thinning, retreat, and collapse of ice shelves along the Antarctic Peninsula are harbingers of warming effects around the entire continent. Ice shelves cover more than 1.5 million km2 and fringe 75% of Antarctica's coastline, delineating the primary connections between the Antarctic continent, the continental ice, and the Southern Ocean. Changes in Antarctic ice shelves bring dramatic and large‐scale modifications to Southern Ocean ecosystems and continental ice movements, with global‐scale implications. The thinning and rate of future ice‐shelf demise is notoriously unpredictable, but models suggest increased shelf‐melt and calving will become more common. To date, little is known about sub‐ice‐shelf ecosystems, and our understanding of ecosystem change following collapse and calving is predominantly based on responsive science once collapses have occurred. In this review, we outline what is known about (a) ice‐shelf melt, volume loss, retreat, and calving, (b) ice‐shelf‐associated ecosystems through sub‐ice, sediment‐core, and pre‐collapse and post‐collapse studies, and (c) ecological responses in pelagic, sympagic, and benthic ecosystems. We then discuss major knowledge gaps and how science might address these gaps.This article is categorized under: Climate, Ecology, and Conservation > Modeling Species and Community Interactions

Sound propagation in Arctic-like waveguides

Sound propagation in Arctic-like waveguides (regions with a strong interaction of the acoustic field propagating in the water layer with both ice cover and the bottom) is complex phenomenon. The authors have performed more than two dozen experiments in different seasons on the shelf of the White Sea and in Moscow region both in the active regime and in the noise interferometry regime. In the active regime, it was demonstrated that the presence of ice leads to a decrease in the critical frequencies of the modes. If the bottom gives off gas, its accumulation under the ice layer significantly affects the boundary conditions. Flexural waves propagate over the ice and can radiate energy into the water layer. Interference occurs and is significant, especially near and below the cutoff frequency of the waveguide. Ice movement causes crackling. Using the acoustic noise caused by the crackling as a signal (noise interferometry regime) on the Arctic shelf allowed to solve the inverse problem and to reconstruct the sea parameters, for example, tidal activity. Using several horizontally spaced hydrophones, it was possible to study the processes of the propagation of individual cracks in the ice.

Differentiation of subglacial conditions on soft and hard bed settings and implications for ice sheet dynamics: a case study from north-central Poland

We reconstruct patterns of subglacial processes on a hard bedrock and a soft bed under the southern sector of Scandinavian Ice Sheet (SIS) occurring in the basal till of the Late Saalian Glaciation at the Wapienno, Barcin and Młodocin sites (north-central Poland). Based on detailed sedimentological studies, two phases of SIS transgression were recognised. In the initial phase of the transgression, the SIS advanced onto a frozen substrate (continuous permafrost). The low permeability of the substratum led to a high subglacial water pressure (SWP) and increased basal sliding. The local increase of SWP led to the development of different types of structures and sediments. On a hard bedrock, with low SWP, abrasion predominated and linear structures were developing, while in the case of high SWP, the ice was decoupled from the hard substrate, pressurised liquefied sediment flowed, and structures of the p-form and s-form type developed. On a soft bed, the ice-bed contact was of a mosaic type and the ice movement had an ice-stream character. The ice-stream developed towards the east in the marginal zone of the SIS and used a W-E oriented valley filled by the Wapienno Formation fluvial complex. During a later phase, the ice movement was slower and did not have a stream character. Its direction changed to SE. The deposition of the main part of the diamicton occurred mainly as a result of the lodgement process.

PARAMETER ESTIMATION AND MOTION TRACKING OF PACK ICE FROM FY-3/MERSI IMAGES

Abstract. A method to estimate the shape parameters and track the motion velocity of pack ice is presented. The method consists of sea ice recognition, pack ice extraction, parameters estimation and motion tracking. We try to estimate the shape parameters and track the motion velocity from FY-3/MERSI images of Fram strait, which were covered by cloud less than 30%. It found that the pack ice concentration significantly decreases faster than sea ice concentration. The two parameters indicate the distribution difference between sea ices and pack ices. The change of the perimeter and mean clamp diameter are obvious owing to they were sensitive to the edge of the pack ices. But the small change of roundness, convexity and width-height ratio indicate the shape similarity of pack ices in various size. More than 80% of the pack ices in the study region are tracked successfully by the proposed method. The resulting motion vectors in the overlapping zones are found to match well with the polar daily grid sea ice motion vectors provided by the National Snow and Ice Data Centre. The method can provide the actual motion vector of pack ices to improve the distribution and details of the grid-to-grid motion vectors.

Potential Vorticity Dynamics of the Arctic Halocline

AbstractAn idealized two-layer shallow water model is applied to the study of the dynamics of the Arctic Ocean halocline. The model is forced by a surface stress distribution reflective of the observed wind stress pattern and ice motion and by an inflow representing the flow of Pacific Water through Bering Strait. The model reproduces the main elements of the halocline circulation: an anticyclonic Beaufort Gyre in the western basin (representing the Canada Basin), a cyclonic circulation in the eastern basin (representing the Eurasian Basin), and a Transpolar Drift between the two gyres directed from the upwind side of the basin to the downwind side of the basin. Analysis of the potential vorticity budget shows a basin-averaged balance primarily between potential vorticity input at the surface and dissipation at the lateral boundaries. However, advection is a leading-order term not only within the anticyclonic and cyclonic gyres but also between the gyres. This means that the eastern and western basins are dynamically connected through the advection of potential vorticity. Both eddy and mean fluxes play a role in connecting the regions of potential vorticity input at the surface with the opposite gyre and with the viscous boundary layers. These conclusions are based on a series of model runs in which forcing, topography, straits, and the Coriolis parameter were varied.

Assessing the Potential of Enhanced Resolution Gridded Passive Microwave Brightness Temperatures for Retrieval of Sea Ice Parameters

A new enhanced resolution gridded passive microwave brightness temperature (TB) product is used to estimate sea ice concentration and motion. The effective resolution of the TBs is found to be roughly twice that of the standard 25 km resolution, though the gridded resolution of the distributed product is higher. Enhanced resolution sea ice concentrations from the Bootstrap algorithm show more detail in the sea ice, including relatively small open water regions within the ice pack. Sea ice motion estimates from the enhanced resolution TBs using a maximum cross-correlation method show a smoother motion circulation pattern; in comparison to buoys, RMS errors are 15–20% lower than motion estimates from the standard resolution fields and the magnitude of the bias is smaller as well. The enhanced resolution product includes other potentially beneficial characteristics, including twice-daily grids based on local time of day and a complete timeseries of data from nearly all multi-channel passive microwave radiometers since 1978. These enhanced resolution TBs are potential new source for long-term records of sea ice concentration, motion, age, melt, as well as salinity and ocean-atmosphere fluxes.

Ship resistance when operating in floating ice floes: A combined CFD&DEM approach

Whilst climate change is transforming the Arctic into a navigable ocean where small ice floes are floating on the sea surface, the effect of such ice conditions on ship performance has yet to be understood. The present work combines a set of numerical methods to simulate the ship-wave-ice interaction in such ice conditions. Particularly, Computational Fluid Dynamics is applied to provide fluid solutions for the floes and it is incorporated with the Discrete Element Method to govern ice motions and account for ship-ice/ice-ice collisions, by which, the proposed approach innovatively includes ship-generated waves in the interaction. In addition, this work provides two algorithms that can implement computational models with natural ice-floe fields, which takes floe size distribution and randomness into consideration thus achieving high-fidelity modelling of the problem. Following validation against experiments, the model is shown accurate in predicting the ice-floe resistance of a ship, and then a series of simulations are performed to investigate how the resistance is influenced by ship speed, ice concentration, ice thickness and floe diameter. This paper presents a useful approach that can provide power estimates for Arctic shipping and has the potential to facilitate other polar engineering purposes.

Revised Estimates of Recent Mass Loss Rates for Penny Ice Cap, Baffin Island, Based on 2005–2014 Elevation Changes Modified for Firn Densification

AbstractRepeat airborne or satellite measurements of surface elevation over ice caps are often used to calculate glacier‐wide surface mass changes over time. However, these measurements typically do not account for vertical ice motion caused by firn densification and/or ice flow, so the effect of these factors for mass change measurements over an entire ice cap are currently poorly constrained. In this study, we update NASA Airborne Topographic Mapper (ATM) altimetry elevation changes across Penny Ice Cap (Baffin Island, Canada) to assess total changes in ice mass from 2005–2014, relative to 1995–2000. Dual‐frequency GPS measurements and temporal changes in ice core density profiles are used to calculate firn densification and ice flow to isolate the component of elevation change due to surface mass change. Envisat satellite imagery is used to delineate the areas impacted by firn densification. These calculations, the first for a Canadian Arctic ice cap, indicate that accounting for firn densification may reduce the inferred surface mass loss by ~13–15%. Overall, there has been a fourfold increase in mass loss from Penny Ice Cap between 1995–2000 (−1.3 ± 0.7 Gt a−1) and 2005–2013 (−5.4 ± 1.9 Gt a−1). The rapid upglacier migration of the equilibrium line has left large areas of subsurface firn in the current ablation area and has far outpaced the ice flow response, illustrating that the ice cap is not in equilibrium and out of balance with the current climate.

Combined pattern matching and feature tracking for Bohai Sea ice drift detection using Gaofen-4 imagery

ABSTRACT Sea ice is the main cause of winter marine disasters in the Bohai Sea, which is an important sea area in China. The sea ice in the Bohai Sea is easily deformed by strong water currents and rapid temperature changes. Consequently, low spatial and temporal resolution data cannot meet the needs of high-precision monitoring of the sea ice in the Bohai Sea. The geostationary satellite Gaofen-4 (GF-4) has the unique advantages of a high temporal resolution (20 s) and a high spatial resolution (50 m) and can be used to monitor sea ice drift in the Bohai Sea. We evaluate a new algorithm that combines the scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) technique and the normalized cross-correlation (NCC) method to obtain accurate sea ice drift information. The interclass separability method is used to determine the optimal band combination (OBC), and the results show that the OBC for distinguishing sea ice from sea water is B2×(B1× B5)−1. The proposed method improves noise immunity and calculation efficiency and considers the characteristics of ice blocks. The proposed algorithm can also obtain more correctly matched feature points than the NCC method and approximately 10 times more correct points than the SIFT technique. The mean absolute error (MAE) of the velocity obtained with the proposed algorithm is 0.1615 m s−1 lower than those obtained with the SIFT and NCC methods, and the root mean square error of the velocity determination of the three algorithms is very small. The MAE of the ice movement direction obtained with the proposed algorithm is 0.605° lower than those obtained with the SIFT and NCC methods, and the MAE of a second data set is 12.378° better than that of the SIFT method. The motion of sea ice obtained by the proposed algorithm is close to the actual movement of the sea ice in the Bohai Sea.

Formation of a hazardous ice-dammed glacier lake: a case study of anomalous behavior of Hassanabad glacier system in the Karakoram

Formation of glacier lakes and glacier lake outburst floods (GLOF) are not a new phenomenon in the Karakoram Himalaya. This case study focuses on sudden expansion of Shishper glacier termini and subsequent formation of an ice-dammed glacier lake occupying ~ 3 km moraine following Mochuwar glacier retreat in the Karakoram. A method based on a combination of space (remote sensing) and ground observations is applied to reconstruct spatio-temporal glacier termini change and lake extent. Moreover, the likely glacier-mass losses are determined above and below the Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) contours based on recommended values of Accumulation-Area-Ratio and Accumulation-Area-Balance-Ratio for mountain glaciers. Potential implications of glacier surge and ice-dammed glacier lake on downstream infrastructure and hydrological system are assessed. The results show that the Shishper glacier termini advanced 90% from 1980s to 1999 and 78.7% from 1999 to 2019 as compared to 188% and 421% retreat in the Mochuwar glacier termini for the same years, respectively. The current unusual surge of debris-covered Shishper glacier termini created a ~ 152 m deep ice-dammed glacier lake representing a total area increase of 500% over 6 months. The ratio of glacier accumulation to ablation is low for the Hassanabad glacier system, therefore there is a significant influence on forward movement of Shishper glacier termini. Water discharge from the glacier lake increased with increase in summer temperatures causing inundation of part of the Karakoram Highway at Hassanabad village. The current unusual surge of the Shishper glacier can be characterized as type-I as it involves an in-built unsteadiness without any regular intervals due to an unknown mechanism producing very high movement of debris-covered glacial ice and sediments.

Marine debris on two Arctic beaches in the Russian Far East

In August 2005, marine debris was counted on two Arctic beaches in the Russian Far East. On the north coast of the Chukchi Peninsula east of Kolyuchin Bay, a beach stretch of ca. 2.4 km held a total of 736 items, 0.024 items m‑2, while no more than 0.0011 items m‑2, 12 items in total, were found on a beach stretch of ca. 1.2 km on southern Wrangel Island. The likely explanation for this difference is that the area around the mainland beach is ice-free for a longer period each year, but a contributing factor may be that late spring ice movement removed plastic from the beach on Wrangel Island. The language on the few items with identifiable labels was for the most part Russian or English, making the Chukchi Sea a possible source region. Beaches at the same latitude in the Atlantic may hold more debris on account of the higher human population density, more shipping and transport of floating debris unhindered by a narrow strait that is ice-covered much of the year. Fishing gear blown across the tundra is suggested as a potential threat to reindeer and other terrestrial wildlife.

Mapping, Monitoring, and Prediction of Floods Due to Ice Jam and Snowmelt with Operational Weather Satellites

Among all the natural hazards throughout the world, floods occur most frequently. They occur in high latitude regions, such as: 82% of the area of North America; most of Russia; Norway, Finland, and Sweden in North Europe; China and Japan in Asia. River flooding due to ice jams may happen during the spring breakup season. The Northeast and North Central region, and some areas of the western United States, are especially harmed by floods due to ice jams and snowmelt. In this study, observations from operational satellites are used to map and monitor floods due to ice jams and snowmelt. For a coarse-to-moderate resolution sensor on board the operational satellites, like the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on board the National Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) and the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) series, and the Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI) on board the GOES-R series, a pixel is usually composed of a mix of water and land. Water fraction can provide more information and can be estimated through mixed-pixel decomposition. The flood map can be derived from the water fraction difference after and before flooding. In high latitude areas, while conventional observations are usually sparse, multiple observations can be available from polar-orbiting satellites during a single day, and river forecasters can observe ice movement, snowmelt status and flood water evolution from satellite-based flood maps, which is very helpful in ice jam determination and flood prediction. The high temporal resolution of geostationary satellite imagery, like that of the ABI, can provide the greatest extent of flood signals, and multi-day composite flood products from higher spatial resolution imagery, such as VIIRS, can pinpoint areas of interest to uncover more details. One unique feature of our JPSS and GOES-R flood products is that they include not only normal flood type, but also a special flood type as the supra-snow/ice flood, and moreover, snow and ice masks. Following the demonstrations in this study, it is expected that the JPSS and GOES-R flood products, with ice and snow information, can allow dynamic monitoring and prediction of floods due to ice jams and snowmelt for wide-end users.

Annual Cycles of Sea Ice Motion and Deformation Derived From Buoy Measurements in the Western Arctic Ocean Over Two Ice Seasons

AbstractData collected by two buoy arrays that operated during the ice seasons of 2014/2015 and 2016/2017 were used to characterize annual cycles of ice motion and deformation in the western Arctic Ocean. An anomalously strong and weak Beaufort Gyre in 2014/2015 and 2016/2017 induced generally anticyclonic and cyclonic sea ice drift during 2014/2015 and 2016/2017, respectively. Cyclonic ice motion resulted in higher contributions of ice divergence to total ice deformation in 2016/2017 than in 2014/2015. In 2014, the autumn ice concentration and multiyear ice coverage were higher than in 2016; consequently, the response of ice motion to wind forcing was weak, and less ice deformation was observed in autumn 2014. During the autumn‐winter transition, the ice‐wind speed ratio, ice deformation rate and its spatial and temporal scaling exponents, and localization of ice deformation decreased markedly in both 2014/2015 and 2016/2017 as a result of freeze‐up and consolidation of ice floes. Such dynamic behavior was maintained through to spring with the further thickening of ice cover. Ice deformation increased due to weakened ice strength as summer approached. The amplitude of the annual cycle of ice deformation rate in the western Arctic Ocean in 2014/2015 and especially in 2016/2017 was larger than that observed during the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) program in 1997/1998. We attribute this phenomenon to ice loss during the recent summers, especially of thick multiyear ice.

Assessment of the community vulnerability to extreme spring floods: the case of the Amga River, central Yakutia, Siberia

Abstract Spring floods in Siberia annually affect local communities. Major urban settlements in the region implemented flood control structures, so rural areas take a heavy beating. In 2018, spring floods severely hit multiple communities in central Yakutia, exposing deficient flood prevention and risk management practices. Notably, Amga village, an important local center, was severely inundated. Hydrological analysis shows that the 2018 flood had a 50-yr return period, and was caused by an ice jam in a nearby channel bend where mid-channel sand bars impede ice movement during breakup. The cold spells of late April and early May in the middle section of the river promote ice-jam development, causing extreme water stage rise. Highest water stage is unrelated to either winter snow water equivalent or early May rainfall. Estimated tangible direct damage to the Amga community equals 5.1B ($81.5M) in 2018 prices, but only 0.13B ($2.1M), or 2.5% of this total, was reclaimed. A questionnaire survey revealed that most residents report important deterioration of drinking water quality and health after flooding. Residents respond positively to risk mitigation actions, implemented by the local and regional authorities, except ice dusting and cutting, and report minor activity of official sources in spreading information on flood progress.

An enhancement to sea ice motion and age products at the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC)

Abstract. A new version of sea ice motion and age products includes several significant upgrades in processing, corrects known issues with the previous version, and updates the time series through 2018, with regular updates planned for the future. First, we provide a history of these NASA products distributed at the National Snow and Ice Data Center. Then we discuss the improvements to the algorithms, provide validation results for the new (Version 4) and older versions, and intercompare the two. While Version 4 algorithm changes were significant, the impact on the products is relatively minor, particularly for more recent years. The changes in Version 4 reduce motion biases by ∼ 0.01 to 0.02 cm s−1 and error standard deviations by ∼ 0.3 cm s−1. Overall, ice speed increased in Version 4 over Version 3 by 0.5 to 2.0 cm s−1 over most of the time series. Version 4 shows a higher positive trend for the Arctic of 0.21 cm s−1 per decade compared to 0.13 cm s−1 per decade for Version 3. The new version of ice age estimates indicates more older ice than Version 3, especially earlier in the record, but similar trends toward less multiyear ice. Changes in sea ice motion and age derived from the product show a significant shift in the Arctic ice cover, from a pack with a high concentration of older ice to a sea ice cover dominated by first-year ice, which is more susceptible to summer melt. We also observe an increase in the speed of the ice over the time series ≥ 30 years, which has been shown in other studies and is anticipated with the annual decrease in sea ice extent.

Long-Term Analysis of Sea Ice Drift in the Western Ross Sea, Antarctica, at High and Low Spatial Resolution

The Ross Sea region, including three main polynya areas in McMurdo Sound, Terra Nova Bay, and in front of the Ross Ice Shelf, has experienced a significant increase in sea ice extent in the first four decades of satellite observations. Here, we use Co-Registration of Optically Sensed Images and Correlation (COSI-Corr) to estimate 894 high-resolution sea ice motion fields of the Western Ross Sea in order to explore ice-atmosphere interactions based on sequential high-resolution Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) images from the Envisat satellite acquired between 2002–2012. Validation of output motion vectors with manually drawn vectors for 24 image pairs show Pearson correlation coefficients of 0.92 ± 0.09 with a mean deviation in direction of −3.17 ± 6.48 degrees. The high-resolution vectors were also validated against the Environment and Climate Change Canada sea ice motion tracking algorithm, resulting in correlation coefficients of 0.84 ± 0.20 and the mean deviation in the direction of −0.04 ± 17.39 degrees. A total of 480 one-day separated velocity vector fields have been compared to an available NSIDC low-resolution sea ice motion vector product, showing much lower correlations and high directional differences. The high-resolution product is able to better identify short-term and spatial variations, whereas the low-resolution product underestimates the actual sea ice velocities by 47% in this important near-coastal region. The large-scale pattern of sea ice drift over the full time period is similar in both products. Improved image coverage is still desired to capture drift variations shorter than 24 h.

Experimental Study of Sea Ice Motion in Waves

Abstract To better understand the interactions between ships and ice, analyze ice–ice collisions, and provide parameters for the design of ships and offshore structures, it is important to study th...

Impacts of atmosphere–sea ice–ocean interaction on Southern Ocean deep convection in a climate system model

Deep convection in polar oceans plays a critical role in the variability of global climate. In this study, we investigate potential impacts of atmosphere–sea ice–ocean interaction on deep convection in the Southern Ocean (SO) of a climate system model (CSM) by changing sea ice–ocean stress. Sea ice–ocean stress plays a vital role in the horizontal momentum exchange between sea ice and the ocean, and can be parameterized as a function of the turning angle between sea ice and ocean velocity. Observations have shown that the turning angle is closely linked to the sea-ice intrinsic properties, including speed and roughness, and it varies spatially. However, a fixed turning angle, i.e., zero turning angle, is prescribed in most of the state-of-the-art CSMs. Thus, sensitivities of SO deep convection to zero and non-zero turning angles are discussed in this study. We show that the use of a non-zero turning angle weakens open–ocean deep convection and intensifies continental shelf slope convection. Our analyses reveal that a non-zero turning angle first induces offshore movement of sea ice transporting to the open SO, which leads to sea ice decrease in the SO coastal region and increase in the open SO. In the SO coastal region, the enhanced sea-ice divergence intensifies the formation of denser surface water descending along continental shelf by enhanced salt flux and reduced freshwater flux, combined with enhanced Ekman pumping and weakened stratification, contributing to the occurrence and intensification of continental shelf slope convection. On the other hand, the increased sea ice in the open SO weakens the westerlies, enhances sea-level pressure, and increases freshwater flux, whilst oceanic cyclonic circulation slows down, sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity decrease in the open SO response to the atmospheric changes. Thus, weakened cyclonic circulation, along with enhanced freshwater flux, reduced deep–ocean heat content, and increased stability of sea water, dampens the open–ocean deep convection in the SO, which in turn cools the sea surface temperature, increases sea-level pressure, and finally increases sea-ice concentration, providing a positive feedback. In the CSM, the use of a non-zero turning angle has the capability to reduce the SO warm bias. These results highlight the importance of an accurate representation of sea ice–ocean coupling processes in a CSM.