Ice-ice Disease Research Articles

Use of Common Lantana (Lantana camara Linn) Extract to Prevent Ice-ice Disease and Trigger Growth Rate of the Seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii

This research aimed to determine and assess the growth, production, and quality of seaweed after pre-treating seedlings using lantana extract. Research on the use of common lantana Lantana camara extract in the culture of the seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii was carried out both at experimental and mass culture scales at several locations in the coastal waters of South Konawe in Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. The treatments were soaking seaweed seedlings in solutions of lantana extract with various dosages and soaking times before planting them out in coastal waters. Observed parameters were incidence of ice-ice disease and seaweed growth rate. Results showed that, during the culture period, there was no incidence of ice-ice disease on seaweed seedlings pre-treated with Lantana extract. Thalli were healthy and dark-coloured with no ice-ice disease symptoms, while seaweed seedlings (controls) without extract soaking pre-treatment were paler in colour and ice-ice infected parts of the thalli were white. The result also showed that pre-treatment with lantana extract could increase the growth rate, with the highest net growth at a treatment dosage of 500 ppm with 30 minutes soaking time. The average value of net (absolute) growth (AG) was 387.15 g/clump, equivalent to a 12.9-fold increase from the initial weight of 30 g/clump. The average highest specific growth rate (SGR) was 6.43 %/day, while for seaweed seedlings without immersion in Lantana extract the highest SGR was only 5.86%/day. The highest average production was 417.15 g/clump, while seaweed seeds without extract yielded on average 295.70 g/clump. The highest average carrageenan content was 53.5%, compared to 38.6% for untreated (control) seaweed.

Effect of different seedling sources on growth and carrageenan yield of seaweed kappaphycus alvarezii cultivated in Marobo Waters, Muna Regency, Southeast (Se) Sulawesi, Indonesia

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of different seedling sources on growth and carrageenan yield of K. alvarezii. There were three various seedlings sources used in this study: local strain, tissue-cultured seedlings, and seedlings resulting from mass selection combined with tissue–cultured method called “prof’. This research was over three months (August-October 2018) in Marobo coastal waters, Bone District, Muna Regency SE Sulawesi using the longline method. The results showed that the daily growth rate (DGR) during this study tended to fluctuate among treatments “prof’ and tissue-cultured seedlings had higher the DGRs than local strain seedlings. Ratio fresh weight (FW) and dry weight (DW) showed no significant differences among different seedling sources. The mean FW: DW ratio showed the local strain had the highest ratio (10.10:1) followed by tissue-cultured seedlings (9.88:1) and prof (9.06:1). Furthermore, the local strain showed a significant difference in carrageenan yield from the “prof’ and tissue-culture seedlings. Local strain seedlings showed the highest carrageenan yield (40.58±2.51%) followed by tissue-cultured seedling (35.35±2.79%) and prof seedlings (33.88±2.09%). Ice-ice disease and epiphyte (Sargassum polychystum) were found during this study. This study showed that prof and tissue-cultured seedlings greater potential for improved seaweed farming.

Seaweed Biodiversity and Temperature Fluctuations of Calatagan Bay, Verde Island Passage

Changes in seaweed biodiversity reflect ecological changes and management of coastal communities. Calatagan Bay is a tourism, agriculture and aquaculture hotspot fronting the Verde Island Passage, touted to be the global center of marine biodiversity. Detection of stressors through monitoring is the key in the proper management of the area. This study surveyed existing seaweed species of the coast, and contrasted it with reported species in the area together with fluctuations in sea surface temperatures for the past two decades, contrasted with the local knowledge and perspectives of local coast-dwellers. Seaweed along the coast were collected from a representative area of 50 km2 with species identification based on morphology and pigment. Ten species that were previously unreported were found while fourteen previously reported species were no longer observed. Caulerpa, Kappaphycus and Sargassum, all with known market demands, were the dominant genera. Sea surface temperature data from local weather stations and the NOMADs database indicate significant warming events from June 1998 to present, with peak sea surface temperature at 31.9oC. Focused group discussions with local communities indicate increased incidences of ice-ice disease, and issues with the uncontrolled use of fertilizers of neighboring farms contaminating their coastal fronts.

Seaweed biodiversity and temperature fluctuations of Calatagan bay, Verde Island passage

Changes in seaweed biodiversity reflect ecological changes and management of coastal communities. Calatagan Bay is a tourism, agriculture and aquaculture hotspot fronting the Verde Island Passage, touted to be the global center of marine biodiversity. Detection of stressors through monitoring is key in the proper management of the area. This study surveyed existing seaweed species of the coast, and contrasted it with reported species in the area together with fluctuations in sea surface temperatures for the past two decades, contrasted with the local knowledge and perspectives of local coast-dwellers. Seaweed along the coast were collected from a representative area of 50 km2 with species identification based on morphology and pigment. Nine species that were previously unreported were found while fourteen previously reported species were no longer observed. Caulerpa, Kappaphycus and Sargassum, all with known market demands, were the dominant genera. Sea surface temperature data from local weather stations and the NOMADs database indicate significant warming events from June 1998 to present, with peak sea surface temperature at 31.9oC. Focused group discussions with local communities indicate increased incidences of ice-ice disease, and issues with the uncontrolled use of fertilizers of neighboring farms contaminating their coastal fronts.

Kondisi Lingkungan Perairan Pada Lahan Budidaya Rumput Laut Kappaphycus alvarezii Di Desa Jayakarsa Kabupaten Minahasa Utara

A research had been conducted to evaluate seaweed and waters condition at seaweed culture area at Jayakarsa Village. Research locations were divided into three station: 1) at former culture area near mangrove area and the beach, 2) at active culture area, 3) at former culture area with sandy bottom and ”lamun” field. Water quality measured included temperature, salinity, pH, DO, turbidity, flow rate, water depth, bottom type. Protectivenss, risk, and accesibility were also observed. Data was analyzed descriptively and then compared to standard value established in Kangkan (2006). Water condition at station 1 and 2 was categorized Grade 2 (moderately suitable) while at station 3 was marginally suitable which was categorized Grade 3. Major problems faced by the farmers was ice-ice disease, silt and epiphytes that could reduce the production. Keywords: Kappaphycus alvarezii, water quality, Jayakarsa Village, moderately suitable, marginally suitable

Incidence of Ice-Ice Disease Associated with Kappaphycus alvarezii in the Seaweed Farms in Zamboanga Peninsula, Mindanao, Philippines

Incidence of Ice-Ice Disease Associated with Kappaphycus alvarezii in the Seaweed Farms in Zamboanga Peninsula, Mindanao, Philippines

Agrobacterium-MEDIATED GENETIC TRANSFORMATION OF SEAWEED Kappaphycus alvarezii USING Gα GENE AND CALLUS CULTURES

Cottonii seaweed (Kappaphycus alvarezii Doty) is one of the most important commercial sources of carrageenans which are widely used in the pharmaceuticals and food industries. A problem in the cultivation of this seaweed is the ice-ice disease, which is caused by extreme changes in environmental conditions such as temperature and seawater salinity. Gene transformation to produce Cottonii seaweed transgenics that are tolerant to environmental stress is a potential solution to this problem. Gα gene encodes for the heterotrimeric G protein α subunit is a gene that plays a role in tolerance to biotic and abiotic environmental stresses. This study aimed to: (a) introduce the Gα gene into the callus cells of K. alvarezii and regenerate transformed callus cells to transgenic plantlets; (b) determine the appropriate concentration of acetosyringone and Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain for gene transfer into the callus of K. alvarezii. The callus cells of K. alvarezii were transformed using Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains LBA4404 and EHA105 carrying the expression vector pGWB502-Gα with a CaMV-35S promoter. The calli and A. tumefaciens were co-cultivated in several concentrations of acetosyringone (20, 40, 60 mg/L). The regeneration of transformed callus cells into transgenic plantlets was successfully performed using the somatic embryogenesis technique. The results showed that the highest percentage of putative transgenic micropropagule formation occurred at the 20-40 mg/L concentration of acetosyringone. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis on the twenty transgenic plantlets indicated that the Gα gene was successfully introduced into the genomic DNA of all of them. The highest transformation efficiency was in the co-cultivation treatment of 20-40 mg/L acetosyringone (22-28%). The transformation efficiency produced by Agrobacterium tumefaciens EHA105 (23%) was not significantly different from that produced by the LBA4404 (15%).

ENSO and eucheumatoid algae cultivation in China

The outbreaks of ice-ice disease and Epiphytic Filamentous Algae (EFA) on eucheumatoid algae have a close relationship with environmental factors. El Nino together with the corresponding atmospheric Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is the most influential natural climate pattern on Earth. The relationship between the outbreaks of ice-ice disease and EFA on eucheumatoid algae with ENSO was investigated from the perspective of environmental conditions in Lian Bay, Lingshui, China. The low salinity and high temperature during August to October were dangerous for the cultivation of eucheumatoid algae in Lian Bay, especially in La Nina years. The possibility of disease and EFA would be decreased if the algae were cultured in deeper water. We suggest that the algae be cultured in deeper water in the La Nina years in Lian Bay, Lingshui from August to October. Based on the results of this study, future research should pay more attention to the relationship between ENSO and exceptional events in fisheries and aquaculture. Such information will be essential for developing appropriate strategies to predict the timing of exceptional events and help control their impacts.

Evaluation of disease resistance and tolerance to elevated temperature stress of the selected tissue-cultured Kappaphycus alvarezii Doty 1985 under optimized laboratory conditions.

Information on the abiotic stress tolerance and ice-ice disease resistance properties of tissue-cultured Kappaphycus alvarezii is scarce and can pose a big hurdle to a wider use of tissue-cultured seaweed in the industry. Here, we reported on a study of seaweed-associated bacteria diversity in farmed and tissue-cultured K. alvarezii, and ice-ice disease resistance and elevated growth temperature tolerance of tissue-cultured K. alvarezii in laboratory conditions. A total of 40 endophytic seaweed-associated bacteria strains were isolated from 4 types of K. alvarezii samples based on their colony morphologies, Gram staining properties and 16S rRNA gene sequences. Bacteria strains isolated were found to belong to Alteromonas sp., Aestuariibacter sp., Idiomarina sp., Jejuia sp., Halomonas sp., Primorskyibacter sp., Pseudoalteromonas sp., Ruegeria sp., Terasakiella sp., Thalassospira sp. and Vibrio sp. Vibrio alginolyticus strain ABI-TU15 isolated in this study showed agar-degrading property when analyzed using agar depression assay. Disease resistance assay was performed by infecting healthy K. alvarezii with 105cells/mL Vibrio sp. ABI-TU15. Severe ice-ice disease symptoms were detected in farmed seaweeds compared to the tissue-cultured K. alvarezii. Besides disease resistance, tissue-cultured K. alvarezii showed better tolerance to the elevated growth temperatures of 30 and 35°C. In conclusion, our overall data suggests that tissue-cultured K. alvarezii exhibited better growth performance than farmed seaweeds when exposed to elevated growth temperature and ice-ice disease-causing agent.

KELAYAKAN FINANSIAL BUDIDAYA RUMPUT LAUT (SEAWEED) METODE RAKIT BAMBU APUNG DI DESA TALANGO KECAMATAN TALANGO KABUPATEN SUMENEP

Seaweed is a marine biological resources that have ahigh economic value. Eucheuma cottonii cultivated byfarmers Indonesia since the price is relativelyexpensive and much needed as raw material for localindustry and export. Constraints faced by farmers in thedevelopment of seaweed in the village Talango ie lowproduction, often ice-ice disease causing crop failure.Economic studies need to be done to determine thelevel of seaweed production and incomeof farmers. Itcan provide an overview of the economic position ofseaweed farming. Economic position demonstrates theability of farmers to allocate existing resources and canbe approximated by calculating the feasibility offarming. The purpose of thisstudy was to determinethe production feasibility of seaweed farming. Locationof the study are set intentionally (purposive) in theTalango village of the SumenepDistrict . The analyticalmethod used was the analysis of the feasibility offarming. The results showed that the size of the raft56M² (7m x 8m) total production exceeded the level ofincome-producing plant BEP Rp.108.963,-/raft.Seaweed farming in the Talango village feasible bedeveloped because the level of efficiency of 1.24 andcapital productivity by 24%.Keywords:: Eucheuma cottoni, Production, BusinessFeasibility.

THE UTILIZATION OF Halymenia durvillaei TO SUPPORT THE MANAGEMENT OF Eucheuma spinosum SEAWEED FARMING IN GEGER COASTAL AREA, BALI

Seaweed farming activity is now facing some problems caused by pest fish herbivore and ice-ice disease. To solve those and improve our seaweed quality, seaweed production management requires some ecological technique improvements. The purpose of this study was to determine the functions of seaweed H. durvillaei for improving the production of the seaweed E. spinosum in the coastal area of Geger Beach, Peminge Village, South Kuta subdistrict, Badung regency, Bali. The measured data includes parameter of weight, length and water quality. Data was measured every 10 days for up to 40 days. The best growth result was shown by the model of E. spinosum that were fenced by H. durvillaei of 456 g for E. spinosum. H. durvillaei showed good impact on increasing the production of E. spinosum up to 68.7% compared to the control. Water quality conditions on seaweed culture was good with temperature ranged from 27.7 to 30.1°C, salinity from 30 to 32.3 ppt, DO from 3.9 to 5.5 ppm, pH from 7.9 to 8.4, current 0.1 to 0.2 m/s, and clearness of 100%.

Genetic diversity of the causative agent of ice-ice disease of the seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii from Karimunjawa island, Indonesia

An essential step in investigating the bacterial role in the occurrence of diseases in Kappaphycus alvarezii is the characterization of bacteria associated with this seaweed. A molecular characterization was conducted on the genetic diversity of the causative agents of ice-ice disease associated with K. alvarezii widely known as the main source of kappa carrageenan. K. alvrezii infected with ice-ice were collected from the Karimunjawa island, North Java Sea, Indonesia. Using Zobell 2216E marine agar medium, nine bacterial species were isolated from the infected seaweed. The molecular characterizations revealed that the isolated bacteria causing ice-ice disease were closely related to the genera of Alteromonas, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Pseudoalteromonas, Glaciecola, Aurantimonas, and Rhodococcus. In order to identify the symptoms causative organisms, the isolated bacterial species were cultured and were evaluated for their pathogenity. Out of 9 species, only 3 isolates were able to cause the ice-ice symptoms and consisted of Alteromonas macleodii, Pseudoalteromonas issachenkonii and Aurantimonas coralicida. A. macleodii showed the highest pathogenity.

Identifikasi Bakteri pada Rumput Laut Euchema spinosum yang terserang penyakit Ice-ice di Perairan Pantai Kutuh

The main causes of ice-ice disease that seaweed production will decline. Bacterial infections occur due to fluctuations in climate change resulted in a decrease in water quality resulting in the durability of seaweed. When seaweed stress will facilitate pathogen infection. Disease pathogens cause damage to internal organs. The spread of bacterial disease in seaweed is generally very fast and can lead to death, so that the loss caused by this disease is quite large. Ice-ice disease occurrence is seasonal and contagious, so the impact on the selling price low. The results showed that there are two types of pathogenic bacteria that can potentially cause disease in which bacteria Vibrio alginoliticus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Climate change affects the spatial distribution of micro seaweed bacterial pathogens.

Observations on pests and diseases affecting a eucheumatoid farm in China

Pests and diseases of eucheumatoid farming were studied in Lian Bay, Hainan Province, China, from March 2009 to December 2013. Neosiphonia savatieri, ice-ice disease, and the herbivorous fish Siganus fuscescens were found to be the dominant pests and disease. Infections of N. savatieri increased severely in May 2009 and especially so in August 2009. Then, they remained severe the whole year round, until all the Kappaphycus spp. in the bay was wiped out by October 2010. The outbreak pattern of ice-ice disease was the same as that for N. savatieri. Based on our results, the period mostly from May to August and also into October was the period of frequent outbreak of the epiphyte and ice-ice disease at this Kappaphycus spp. farm. Different from the Kappaphycus spp., Eucheuma denticulatum showed more resistance to N. savatieri and ice-ice disease at the same time and location. A reduced occurrence of N. savatieri and ice-ice disease infections in Kappaphycus spp. was observed when Kappaphycus spp. were co-cultured with E. denticulatum during July–August but not during September–October. The fish S. fuscescens swarmed into the bay from the outside sea from April to May, when the seawater temperature increased to above 26 °C. Interestingly, the S. fuscescens usually prefer N. savatieri to Kappaphycus alvarezii, and they grazed on K. alvarezii only after the amount of N. savatieri became insufficient to meet their needs. From these observations, we suggest managing the S. fuscescens with different nets at different seasons but not bombs and poison.

Effect of short-term immersion of Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) Doty in high nitrogen on the growth, nitrogen assimilation, carrageenan quality, and occurrence of “ice-ice” disease

Short-term immersion of Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) Doty in a high-nitrogen-containing medium was tested to increase growth, improve the quality of carrageenan, and decrease “ice-ice” disease occurrence. Tank-reared Kappaphycus were used as explants. Growth, nitrogen assimilation, carrageenan quality, and occurrence of ice-ice disease of enriched (E/N) K. alvarezii were determined. E/N and un-enriched (control) K. alvarezii were planted inside net cages in the sea. Nitrogen assimilation was monitored to determine if nitrogen was incorporated in the tissues after 12 h. Total thallus nitrogen of K. alvarezii doubled after immersion in high nitrogen. Growth rate and carrageenan yield of E/N K. alvarezii were significantly higher than those of the control. Gel strengths of E/N and the control were not significantly different. Ice-ice disease occurrence was significantly higher in the control than the enriched seaweeds. Short-term immersion of K. alvarezii in a high-nitrogen medium before outplanting increased growth rate and decreased the occurrence of “ice-ice”.

Impact of environmental changes on farmed seaweed and farmers: the case of Songo Songo Island, Tanzania

Tanzania, like many other countries where eucheumatoid seaweeds are farmed, is experiencing die-off of Kappaphycus alvarezii. Farming is failing in many cultivation sites in shallow intertidal areas where it used to grow well. Production has fallen dramatically, and in some areas, hardly any seaweed is produced any longer. This study was carried out in Songo Songo Island, southern Tanzania, one of the most affected areas, during February–May 2009. Water temperature averaged 35.7 ± 2.4 °C, higher than what had been observed in seaweed farms in other areas in Tanzania. Salinity was normal seawater at 34.7 ± 0.5 ppt. In the abandoned farming sites, signs of ice-ice, epiphytic Neosiphonia and “dark spots” were observed on the seaweed. Fouling was also observed. Seaweed production decreased from 423.9 t worth US$82,000 in 2003 to 26 t in 2008 worth only US$4,500, and 28 t in 2012 worth US$4,300. Number of farmers was highest (809) during the production peak in 2003 then decreased to 320 in 2008. The number of fishing vessels decreased with an increase in number of farmers and seaweed production and increased when the number of farmers and seaweed production fell. Thus, high-surface water temperatures coupled with fouling, epiphytism, and ice-ice disease signs have caused dramatic decrease in seaweed production in Songo Songo. The onetime lucrative seaweed farming activity in Songo Songo Island of Tanzania has been reduced to almost standstill.

Characterization and Identification of Bacteria Isolated from Seaweed <i>Gracillaria verrucosa</i> (Linn., 1758) Infected by Ice-ice

Ice-ice disease in cultivated algae occurs due to pathogenic bacterial infections. Generally, ice-ice disease is characterized by whitening of the branches and initiated with the color changes of the thalli becomes transparent. This study was aimed to isolate and identify bacteria on seaweed Gracilaria verrucosa infected with ice-ice. Isolated bacteria was inoculated in Tryptic Soy Agar (TSA) and Thiosulphate Citrate Bile Sucrose (TCBS). Morphological and biochemical characterization of the bacterial isolates revealed eight species of bacteria were found in infected thalli including Acinetobacter sp., Pseudomonas sp., Bacillus sp., Micrococcus sp., Corinoverm sp., Cytophaga sp., Vibrio mimicus and V. Campbelii , but n ot all identified bacteria are pathogens on Gracilaria verrucosa . The pathogenic bacteria were Acinetobacter sp, Pseudomonas sp, Bacillus sp, Cytophaga sp. and Vibrio sp. The symptoms of ice-ice disease are generally characterized by bleaching thalli at the base, middle and end of the young thalli, which begins with change of thalli color in to white transparent.

Binary Vector Construction and Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated Transformation of Lysozyme Gene in Seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii

Ice-ice disease is the biggest problem in the cultivation of seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii. The disease is caused by bacterial infection and induced by drastic changes of water quality. Lysozyme has the ability to break down bacterial cell wall. The purpose of this research was to construct of a binary vector pMSH1-Lys carrying chicken Lysozyme (Lis) gene and introduce pMSH1-Lis on K. alvarezii. The binary vector expression was transformed into Agrobacterium tumefaciens LBA4404 by triparental mating. Thallus was inoculated with A. tumefaciens carrying pMSH1-Lis and then the transformed thallus was selected by adding 20 mg/L hygromycin to the culture medium. PCR analysis showed that the construction of the binary plasmid pMSH1-Lys was established. Percentage of transformation of pMSH1-Lis on K. alvarezii was 23.56%, while the efficiency of regeneration was 11.32%. PCR analysis showed that three of the regenerated thallus contained Lysozyme gene. Thus, transgenic K. alvarezii was produced successfully and this can be useful for studying the mechanisms of seaweed defense against bacterial infection.

Kecepatan dan Presentase Infeksi Penyakit Ice-Ice pada Kappaphycus alvarezii di Perairan Bluto Sumenep <br><i>[Velocity and Infection Percentage of Ice-Ice Disease on Kappaphycus alvarezii in Bluto Beach Sumenep]<i>

Abstract Seaweed is vulnerable to be infected by disease due to unlikely environmental circumstance. This condition could cause impact on the optimum growth of seaweed. This research was carried out to understand the rate and percentage of ice-ice disease on Kappaphycus alvarezii. Seven units of seaweed rafts were used. Each of them was observed every 12 hours. Results of this research indicated that the percentage of infection was relatively higher during the day on the observation units which were located next to the shore (1,008%). Three days after the infection of ice-ice disease occurred, the mortality of Kappaphycus alvarezii was certain. Therefore, it was recommended that harvesting Kappaphycus alvarezii should be done one day after the indications of ice-ice disease were noticed.

POPULASI BAKTERI PADA RUMPUT LAUT (Eucheuma Cottonii) YANG TERSERANG PENYAKIT ICE-ICE

The period of sea-weed growing under low condition is a problem that is generally faced by the farmers. The spreading of ice ice disease is affected by the environment changes that suppress the sea-weed growing and become the cause of organic substances releasing, MUCUS on thallus and also stimulate the presence of bacteria around the plantation area. The aim of this research is to know the population of bacteria on E . cottonii infected by ice-ice disease at different location. The method used in the measurement of the population bacteria is total fiat analysis (TFA). Data collection was done three times weekly on three different places Lobuk village, Bluto sub district, Sumenep. The result of observation shows that the average of bacteria population on those three different locations and also different time-observing are significantly different. The total average of bacteria populations ranges from 7278 to 18060 coloni/gr. The high value of this population is assumed as a part of the environment parameter that supports the growing of E. cottonii such as temperature and velocity. Keywords : Bacteria population, Ice-ice, E. cottonli