Ice Analogs Research Articles

C3H8O2 Isomers: Insights into Potential Interstellar Species.

2-Methoxyethanol, with a formula C3H8O2, was recently identified in the massive protocluster NGC 6334I. However, its structural isomers, 1,2-propanediol and 1,3-propanediol, remain undetected despite extensive searches in the Sgr B2 region. In this study, we explored the potential energy surface of the C3H8O2 system using CCSD(T)/aug-cc-pVTZ//MP2/aug-cc-pVTZ calculations, identifying 11 species, with the geminal diols 2,2-propanediol and 1,1-propanediol as the most stable forms. We examined the gas-phase decomposition barrier of these geminal diols and found that 1,1-propanediol is thermodynamically stable at low temperatures (10-150 K). C3H8O2 isomers with energies below 30 kcal/mol are relevant to the ISM, as they have been identified or tentatively detected in irradiation experiments of ice analogs of CO, H2O, and CH3OH.

The effect of dilution on the energy dissipation in water interstellar ice analogues

Context. Interstellar ices and their energetic processing play an important role in advancing the chemical complexity in space. Interstellar ices covering dust grains are intrinsically mixed, and it is assumed that physicochemical changes induced by energetic processing – triggered by photons, electrons, and ions – strongly depend on the content of the ice. Yet, the modelling of these complex mixed systems in experiments and theory is complicated. Aims. In this paper, we investigate the effect of infrared irradiation on a series of different molecules mixed with porous amorphous solid water (pASW) to study the release of vibrational energy in the hydrogen-bonding network of water as a function of mixing ratio and ice content. Particularly, we select mixtures of 20:1 H2O:X and 5:1 H2O:X with X=CO2, NH3, or CH4. Methods. Infrared radiation was supplied by the intense and tunable free electron laser (FEL) 2 at the HFML-FELIX facility. We monitored the structural changes in the interstellar ice analogue after resonant infrared excitation using Fourier-transform reflection absorption infrared (FT-RAIR) spectroscopy. Results. We observed that on-resonance irradiation at the OH-stretching vibration of pASW results in quantitatively identical changes compared to pure pASW for all investigated mixtures. The structural changes we observed closely resemble the previously reported local reordering. The 5:1 mixtures show weaker changes compared to pure pASW, with a decrease in strength from NH3 to CO2. Conclusions. Since the hydrogen-bonding network of pASW restructures similarly upon FEL irradiation, regardless of the mixing component, treating ice layers in models that simulate energy dissipation in the hydrogen-bonding network as pure H2O ice layers can be a justified approximation. Hence, complex systems might not always be necessary to describe the infrared energetic processing of ices.

Impact of environmental conditions on organic matter in astrophysical ice analogues

ABSTRACT The existence of organic matter presenting a high molecular diversity in extraterrestrial environments is well documented. To understand the origin of this organic diversity, laboratory experiments were developed and showed that irradiation and thermal alteration of simple molecules such as methanol, water, and ammonia in conditions mimicking astrophysical ice environments. Ices containing water, methanol, and ammonia (H2O: MeOH: NH3) photolyzed and monitored by infrared spectroscopy, while the organic matter formed at room temperature was analyzed in situ with infrared spectroscopy and ex situ with high-resolution mass spectrometry. Those ices irradiated at 77 K and 10−8 mbar shows a significant organic molecular diversity: residual organic compounds contain up to 78 C, 188 H, 123 N, and 37 O. Most of them contains all four CHNO atoms (76–86 per cent), followed by CHO (11–17 per cent), and CHN compounds (5–6 per cent). CHNO and CHO compounds are more aliphatic (34–53 per cent), while CHN compounds are mostly condensed aromatics (83–90 per cent). In this work, our objective is to investigate impacts of environment on this organic molecular diversity by focusing on three parameters: photon dose, pressure, and heating rate during the warming process. Analyses of the residue formed showed that the heating rate and pressure weakly alter the abundance of the final organic material, while the irradiation rate reduced its abundance at high photon doses by a factor of 8. These results give insights on the impact of icy environment conditions in the evolution of astrophysical organic matter.

Competitive Entrapment of Hypervolatiles in Interstellar and Cometary Water Ice Analogs

The distribution of chemical species in protoplanetary disks around young stars, especially their division between gas and solid phases, fundamentally shapes the composition of future planets and planetesimals. This distribution is likely affected by entrapment, a mechanism whereby volatile species are mechanically or chemically bound within a less volatile ice. In this study, we investigate the entrapment efficiencies of four hypervolatiles (CH4, CO, N2, and Ar) in multicomponent water ice mixtures deposited at different temperatures and mixture ratios. At low ice deposition temperatures, we observe small differences in entrapment efficiency (CH4>CO>N2∼Ar) up to a factor of two across species. The differences in entrapment between species increase by up to an order of magnitude with increasing deposition temperature. The relative entrapment efficiencies are also impacted by changes in the overall hypervolatile concentration of the ice mixtures. Collectively, these experiments suggest that relative entrapment efficiencies are mainly regulated by small differences in binding energies to the ice matrix, though competition for the best sites also influences entrapment in more concentrated ices. We use these results to better inform interpretations of hypervolatile observations in comets and related objects.

Infrared Spectra of Solid HCN Embedded in Various Molecular Environments for Comparison with the Data Obtained with JWST

Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) molecules serve as an important tracer for the chemical evolution of elemental nitrogen in the regions of star and planet formation. This is largely explained by the fact that N atoms and N2 molecules are poorly accessible for observation in the radio and infrared (IR) ranges. In turn, gas-phase HCN can be observed at various stages of star formation, including disks around young stars, cometary comas, and atmospheres of the planetary satellites. Despite the large geography of gas-phase observations, an identification of interstellar HCN ice is still lacking. In this work we present a series of IR spectroscopic measurements performed at the new ultrahigh vacuum cryogenic apparatus aiming to facilitate the search for interstellar HCN ice. A series of high-resolution laboratory IR spectra of HCN molecules embedded in the H2O, H2O:NH3, CO, CO2, and CH3OH ices at 10 K temperature is obtained. These interstellar ice analogues aim to simulate the surroundings of HCN molecules by the main constituents of the icy mantles on the surface of the interstellar grains. In addition, the spectra of HCN molecules embedded in the solid C6H6, C5H5N, and C6H5NH2 are obtained to somehow simulate the interaction of HCN molecules with carbonaceous material of the grains rich in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The acquired laboratory spectroscopic data are compared with the publicly available results of NIRSpec James Webb Space Telescope observations toward quiescent molecular clouds performed by the IceAge team.

Formation of carbonyl sulfide (OCS) via SH radicals in interstellar CO-rich ice under dense cloud conditions

Carbonyl sulfide (OCS) is widely observed in the gas phase toward star-forming regions and was the first of the only two sulfur-bearing species to be detected in interstellar ices so far. However, the chemical network governing its formation is still not fully understood. While the sulfurization of CO and the oxidation of CS are often invoked to form OCS other mechanisms could have a significant contribution. In particular, the multistep reaction involving CO and SH is a good candidate for forming a significant portion of the OCS in dense cloud environments. We aim to constrain the viability of the $ CO SH $ route for forming solid OCS in the interstellar medium, in a similar manner as $ CO OH $ is known to produce CO2 ice. This is achieved by conducting a systematic laboratory investigation of the targeted reactions on interstellar ice analogs under dense cloud conditions. We used an ultrahigh vacuum chamber to simultaneously deposit CO H2S and atomic H at 10 K. SH radicals produced in situ via hydrogen abstraction from H2S reacted with CO to form OCS . We monitored the ice composition during deposition and subsequent warm-up by means of Fourier-transform reflection absorption infrared spectroscopy (RAIRS). Complementarily, desorbed species were recorded with a quadrupole mass spectrometer (QMS) during temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) experiments. Control experiments were performed to secure the product identification. We also explored the effect of different H2S CO mixing ratios---with decreasing H2S concentrations---on the OCS formation yield. OCS is efficiently formed through surface reactions involving CO H2S and H atoms. The suggested underlying mechanism behind OCS formation is $ CO SH HSCO $ followed by $ HSCO H OCS H2 $. The OCS yield reduces slowly, but remains significant with increasing CO H2S mixing ratios ( CO H2S = 1:1, 5:1, 10:1, and 20:1). Our experiments provide unambiguous evidence that OCS can be formed from $ CO SH $ in the presence of H atoms. This route remains efficient for large H2S dilutions ($5<!PCT!>$ with respect to CO ), suggesting that it is a viable mechanism in interstellar ices. Given that SH radicals can be created in clouds over a wide evolutionary timescale, this mechanism could make a non-negligible contribution to the formation of interstellar OCS ice.

The Complex (Organic) Puzzle of the Formation of Hydrogen Cyanide and Isocyanide on Interstellar Ice Analogues.

Aiming to constrain the surface formation of HCN and HNC in the dense interstellar medium on ice-covered dust grains, we investigate the interaction of CN radicals with H2O and CO ices and their subsequent reactivity with H and H2. CN radicals can physisorb on both ices. However, on H2O ice, a hemibond formation is the most common binding mode, while on CO ice, the CN-CO van der Waals complex can form NCCO with a small energy barrier. We show low barrier or barrierless pathways to the formation of HCN and HNC for the reaction H + CN on both ices. Reactivity with H2 involves activation energy barriers to form HCN, which may be overcome by quantum tunneling, while HNC formation is unlikely. The formation of HCN and HNC competes with the formation of NH2CHO on H2O and HCOCN on CO.

Infrared Band Strengths of Dangling OH Features in Amorphous Water at 20 K

Infrared (IR) spectra of vapor-deposited amorphous water at low temperatures show two weak peaks at around 3720 and 3696 cm−1 assigned to free-OH stretching modes of two- and three-coordinated water molecules (so-called “dangling” OH bonds), respectively, on the ice surface. A recent JWST observation first succeeded in detection of a potential dangling OH feature at 3664 cm−1 for ices in molecular clouds, highlighting the importance of dangling OH bonds in interstellar ice chemistry. A lack of band strengths of these features at low temperatures restricts the quantification of dangling OH bonds from IR spectra, hindering development of a molecular-level understanding of the surface structure and chemistry of ice. Using IR multiple-angle incidence resolution spectrometry, we quantified the band strengths of two- and three-coordinated dangling OH features in amorphous water at 20 K as being 4.6 ± 1.6 × 10−18 and 9.1 ± 1.0 × 10−18 cm molecule−1, respectively. These values are more than an order of magnitude lower than band strengths of bulk-water molecules in ice and liquid water and are similar to those of H2O monomers confined in solid matrices. Adsorption of carbon monoxide with dangling OH bonds results in the appearance of a new broad dangling OH feature at 3680–3620 cm−1, with a band strength of 1.8 ± 0.1 × 10−17 cm molecule−1. The band strengths of dangling OH features determined in this study advance our understanding of the surface structure of interstellar ice analogs and recent IR observations of the JWST.

Sublimation of volatiles from H2O:CO2 bulk ices in the context of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

Context. The ROSINA instrument on board the Rosetta spacecraft measured, among others, the outgassing of noble gases from comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. The interpretation of this dataset and unravelling underlying desorption mechanisms requires detailed laboratory studies. Aims. We aim to improve our understanding of the desorption patterns, trapping, and fractionation of noble gases released from the H2O:CO2-dominated ice of comet 67P. Methods. In the laboratory, ice films of neon, argon, krypton, or xenon (Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe) mixed in CO2:H2O were prepared at 15 K. Temperature-programmed desorption mass spectrometry is employed to analyse the desorption behaviour of the noble gases. Mass spectrometric ROSINA data of 67P were analysed to determine the fraction of argon associated with CO2 and H2O, respectively. Results. CO2 has a significant effect on noble gas desorption behaviour, resulting in the co-release of noble gases with CO2, decreasing the amount of noble gas trapped within water, shifting the pure phase noble gas peak desorption temperature to lower temperatures, and prolonging the trapping of neon. These effects are linked to competition for binding sites in the water ice and the formation of crystalline CO2. Desorption energies of the pure phase noble gas release were determined and found to be higher than those previously reported in the literature. Enhancement of the Ar/Kr and Ar/Xe ratios are at best 40% and not significantly influenced by the addition of CO2. Analysis of ROSINA mass spectrometric data shows that the fraction of argon associated with H2O is 0.53 ± 0.30, which cannot be explained by our laboratory results. Conclusions. Multicomponent ice mixtures affect the desorption behaviour of volatiles compared to simple binary mixtures and experiments on realistic cometary ice analogues are vital to understanding comet outgassing.

Sublimation of volatiles from H2O:CO2 bulk ices in the context of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko

Context. Comets are considered to be remnants from the formation of the Solar System. ESA’s Rosetta mission targeted comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko and was able to record high-quality data on its chemical composition and outgassing behaviour, including low abundances of N2 that are observed to be correlated with H2O and CO2 in approximately a 63:37 ratio. Aims. In this work, the thermal desorption behaviour of N2 in H2O:CO2 ices was studied in the laboratory to investigate the co-desorption behaviour of N2 within the two most abundant cometary ices in 67P and to derive desorbing fractions in different temperature regimes. Methods. H2O:CO2:N2 ices of various ratios were prepared in a gas mixing system and co-deposited at 15 K onto a copper sample holder. Sublimation of the ice was measured using temperature programmed desorption mass spectrometry. Quantitative values were derived for the fraction of N2 co-desorbing with CO2 and H2O respectively. To validate the results, H2O:CO2:13CO ices were prepared as well. Results. The experiments show that the co-desorption of N2 with CO2 in H2O:CO2:N2 ices depends on the bulk amount of CO2 present in the ice. The fraction of N2 trapped in H2O reduces as more N2 and CO2 are added to the mixture. CO behaves qualitatively similar to N2, but more CO is found to co-desorb with CO2. To reproduce the ratio of N2 desorbing with H2O over that of CO2 (N2(H2O)/N2(CO2)), our ice analogues need to contain ≥15% CO2, while 67P contains ≤7.5% CO2. Large fractions of N2 can be removed from the ice due to heating up to 70 K, but for ice that most closely resembles that of 67P, the loss fraction of pure phase N2 is expected to be ≤20%. Therefore, N2 is suggested to be a minor carrier of nitrogen in the comet.

Preparation of Acetylenediol (HOCCOH) and Glyoxal (HCOCHO) in Interstellar Analog Ices of Carbon Monoxide and Water

Enols—tautomers of ketones or aldehydes—are considered key intermediates in the formation of prebiotic sugars and sugar acids. Although laboratory simulation experiments suggest that enols should be ubiquitous in the interstellar medium, the underlying formation mechanisms of enols in interstellar environments are largely elusive. Here, we present the laboratory experiments on the formation of glyoxal (HCOCHO) along with its ynol tautomer acetylenediol (HOCCOH) in interstellar ice analogs composed of carbon monoxide (CO) and water (H2O) upon exposure to energetic electrons as a proxy for secondary electrons generated from Galactic cosmic rays. Utilizing tunable vacuum ultraviolet photoionization reflectron time-of-flight mass spectrometry, glyoxal and acetylenediol were detected in the gas phase during temperature-programmed desorption. Our results reveal the formation pathways of glyoxal via radical–radical recombination of two formyl (HĊO) radicals, and that of acetylenediol via keto-enol-ynol tautomerization. Due to the abundance of carbon monoxide and water in interstellar ices, glyoxal and acetylenediol are suitable candidates for future astronomical searches. Furthermore, the detection of acetylenediol in astrophysically relevant ices advances our understanding for the formation pathways of high-energy tautomers such as enols in deep space.

Comprehensive laboratory constraints on thermal desorption of interstellar ice analogues

Gas accretion and sublimation in various astrophysical conditions are crucial aspects of our understanding of the chemical evolution of the interstellar medium. To explain grain growth and destruction in warm media, ice mantle formation and sublimation in cold media, and gas line emission spectroscopy, astrochemical models must mimic the gas--solid abundance ratio. Ice-sublimation mechanisms determine the position of snow lines and the nature of gas emitted by and locked inside planetary bodies in star-forming regions. To interpret observations from the interplanetary and extragalactic interstellar mediums, gas phase abundances must be modelled correctly. We provide a collection of thermal desorption data for interstellar ice analogues, aiming to put constraints on the trapping efficiency of water ice, as well as data that can be used to evaluate astrochemical models. We conduct experiments on compact, amorphous H$_2$O films, involving pure ices as well as binary and ternary mixtures. By manipulating parameters in a controlled way, we generate a set of benchmarks to evaluate both the kinetics and thermodynamics in astrochemical models. We conducted temperature-programmed desorption experiments with increasing order of complexity of ice analogues of various chemical compositions and surface coverages using molecular beams in ultrahigh vacuum conditions (1 times 10$^ $ hPa) and low temperatures (10 K). We provide TPD curves of pure ices made of Ar, CO, CO$_2$, NH$_3$, CH$_3$OH, H$_2$O, and NH$_4^+$HCOO$^-$, their binary ice mixtures with compact amorphous H$_2$O, ternary mixtures of H$_2$O : CH$_3$OH : CO, and a water ice made in situ to investigate its trapping mechanisms. Each experiment includes the experimental parameters, ice desorption kinetics for pure species, and the desorption yield (gas--solid ratio) for ice mixtures. From the desorption yields, we find common trends in the trapping of molecules when their abundance is compared to water: compact amorphous water ices are capable of trapping up to 20<!PCT!> of volatiles (Ar, CO, and CO$_2$), sim 3<!PCT!> of CH$_3$OH, and sim 5<!PCT!> NH$_3$ in relation to the water content within the ice matrix; ammonium formate is not trapped in the water ice films, and compact amorphous water ice formed in situ has similar trapping capabilities to a compact amorphous water ice deposited using molecular beams. Deposited or formed in a very compact structure, amorphous water ice of less than 100 layers cannot trap a large fraction of other gases, including CO and CO$_2$. These desorption yields offer insights into the availability of species that can react and form interstellar complex organic molecules during the warm-up phase of ice mantles. Furthermore, in order to be reliable, gas-grain astrochemical models should be able to reproduce the desorption kinetics and desorption yield presented in our benchmark laboratory experiments.

Formation of methylglyoxal (CH3C(O)CHO) in interstellar analog ices - a key intermediate in cellular metabolism.

Ketoaldehydes are key intermediates in biochemical processes including carbohydrate, lipid, and amino acid metabolism. Despite their crucial role in the interstellar synthesis of essential biomolecules necessary for the Origins of Life, their formation mechanisms have largely remained elusive. Here, we report the first bottom-up formation of methylglyoxal (CH3C(O)CHO)-the simplest ketoaldehyde-through the barrierless recombination of the formyl (HĊO) radical with the acetyl (CH3ĊO) radical in low-temperature interstellar ice analogs upon exposure to energetic irradiation as proxies of galactic cosmic rays. Utilizing vacuum ultraviolet photoionization reflectron time-of-flight mass spectrometry and isotopic substitution studies, methylglyoxal and its enol tautomer 2-hydroxypropenone (CH3C(OH)CO) were identified in the gas phase during the temperature-programmed desorption of irradiated carbon monoxide-acetaldehyde (CO-CH3CHO) ices, suggesting their potential as promising candidates for future astronomical searches. Once synthesized in cold molecular clouds, methylglyoxal can serve as a key precursor to sugars, sugar acids, and amino acids. Furthermore, this work provides the first experimental evidence for tautomerization of a ketoaldehyde in interstellar ice analogs, advancing our fundamental knowledge of how ketoaldehydes and their enol tautomers can be synthesized in deep space.

The fundamental vibrational frequencies and spectroscopic constants of the C2O2H2 isomers: molecules known in simulated interstellar ice analogues.

While trans-glyoxal may not be easily observable in astronomical sources through either IR or radioastronomy due to its C2h symmetry, its cis conformer along with the cyc-H2COCO epoxide isomer should be ready targets for astrochemical detection. The present quantum chemical study shows that not only are both molecular isomers strongly polar, they also have notable IR features and low isomerisation energies of 4.1 kcal mol-1 and 10.7 kcal mol-1, respectively. These three isomers along with two other C2O2H2 isomers have had their full set of fundamental vibrational frequencies and spectroscopic constants characterised herein. These isomers have previously been shown to occur in simulated astrophysical ices making them worthy targets of astronomical search. Furthermore, the hybrid quartic force field (QFF) approach utilized herein to produce the needed spectral data has a mean absolute percent error compared to the experimentally-available, gas phase fundamental vibrational frequencies of 0.6% and rotational constants to better than 0.1%. The hybrid QFF is defined from explicitly correlated coupled cluster theory at the singles, doubles, and perturbative triples level [CCSD(T)-F12b] including core electron correlation and a canonical CCSD(T) relativity correction for the harmonic (quadratic) terms in the QFF and simple CCSD(T)-F12b/cc-pVDZ energies for the cubic and quartic terms, the so-called "F12-TcCR+DZ QFF." This method is producing spectroscopically-accurate predictions for both fundamental vibrational frequencies and principal spectroscopic constants. Hence, the values computed in this work should be notably accurate and, hence, exceptionally useful to the spectroscopy and astrochemistry communities.

UV-photoprocessing of acetic acid (CH3COOH)-bearing interstellar ice analogues

ABSTRACT Acetic acid (CH3COOH) was detected in the gas towards interstellar clouds, hot cores, protostars, and comets. Its formation in ice mantles was proposed, and acetic acid awaits detection in the infrared spectra of the ice as most of the other complex organic molecules except methanol. The thermal annealing and UV-irradiation of acetic acid in the ice was simulated experimentally in this work under astrophysically relevant conditions. The experiments were performed under ultrahigh vacuum conditions. An ice layer was formed by vapour deposition onto a cold substrate, and was warmed up or exposed to ultraviolet (UV) photons. The ice was monitored by infrared spectroscopy, while the molecules desorbing to the gas phase were measured using a quadrupole mass spectrometer. The transformation of the CH3COOH monomers to cyclic dimers occurs at 120 K, and the crystal form composed of chain polymers was observed above 160 K during warm-up of the ice. Ice sublimation proceeds at 189 K in our experiments. Upon UV-irradiation, simpler species and radicals are formed, which leads to a residue made of complex molecules after warm-up to the room temperature. The possible formation of oxalic acid needs to be confirmed. The photodestruction of acetic acid molecules is reduced when mixed with water in the ice. This work may serve to search for the acetic acid photoproducts in lines of sight where this species is detected. A comparison of the reported laboratory infrared spectra with current JWST observations allows to detect or set upper limits on the CH3COOH abundances in interstellar and circumstellar ice mantles.

Infrared Spectral Signatures of Nucleobases in Interstellar Ices I: Purines.

The purine nucleobases adenine and guanine are complex organic molecules that are essential for life. Despite their ubiquitous presence on Earth, purines have yet to be detected in observations of astronomical environments. This work therefore proposes to study the infrared spectra of purines linked to terrestrial biochemical processes under conditions analogous to those found in the interstellar medium. The infrared spectra of adenine and guanine, both in neat form and embedded within an ice made of H2O:NH3:CH4:CO:CH3OH (10:1:1:1:1), were analysed with the aim of determining which bands attributable to adenine and/or guanine can be observed in the infrared spectrum of an astrophysical ice analogue rich in other volatile species known to be abundant in dense molecular clouds. The spectrum of adenine and guanine mixed together was also analysed. This study has identified three purine nucleobase infrared absorption bands that do not overlap with bands attributable to the volatiles that are ubiquitous in the dense interstellar medium. Therefore, these three bands, which are located at 1255, 940, and 878 cm-1, are proposed as an infrared spectral signature for adenine, guanine, or a mixture of these molecules in astrophysical ices. All three bands have integrated molar absorptivity values (ψ) greater than 4 km mol-1, meaning that they should be readily observable in astronomical targets. Therefore, if these three bands were to be observed together in the same target, then it is possible to propose the presence of a purine molecule (i.e., adenine or guanine) there.

Interstellar Carbonaceous Dust Erosion Induced by X-Ray Irradiation of Water Ice in Star-forming Regions

The chemical inventory of protoplanetary midplanes is the basis for forming planetesimals. Among them, solid-state reactions based on CO/CO2 toward molecular complexity on interstellar dust grains have been studied in theoretical and laboratory work. The physicochemical interactions between ice, constituted mainly of H2O, and dust surfaces are limited to a few experimental studies focusing on vacuum ultraviolet and cosmic-ray processing. In this work, the erosion of C dust grains induced by X-ray irradiation of H2O ice was systematically investigated for the first time. The work aims to provide a better understanding of the reaction mechanism using selectively isotope-labeled oxygen/carbon species in kinetic analysis. Ultrahigh vacuum experiments were performed to study the interstellar ice analog on submicron, thick C dust at ∼13 K. H2O or O2 ice was deposited on the presynthesized amorphous C dust and exposed to soft X-ray photons (250–1250 eV). Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy was used to monitor in situ the newly formed species as a function of the incident photon fluence. Field emission scanning electron microscopy was used to monitor the morphological changes of (non-)eroded carbon samples. The X-ray processing of the ice/dust interface leads to the formation of CO2, which further dissociates and forms CO. Carbonyl groups are formed by oxygen addition to grain surfaces and are confirmed as intermediate species in the formation process. The yields of CO and CO2 were found to be dependent on the thickness of the carbon layer. The astronomical relevance of the experimental findings is discussed.

Interaction of H2S with H atoms on grain surfaces under molecular cloud conditions

Context. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is thought to be efficiently formed on grain surfaces through the successive hydrogenation of sulfur atoms. Its non-detection so far in astronomical observations of icy dust mantles thus indicates that effective destruction pathways must play a significant role in its interstellar abundance. While chemical desorption has been shown to remove H2S very efficiently from the solid phase, in line with H2S gas-phase detections, possible ice chemistry triggered by the related HS radical have been largely disregarded so far, despite it being an essential intermediate in the H2S + H reaction scheme. Aims. We aim to thoroughly investigate the fate of H2S upon H-atom impact under molecular cloud conditions, providing a comprehensive analysis combined with detailed quantification of both the chemical desorption and ice chemistry that ensues. Methods. We performed experiments in an ultrahigh vacuum chamber at temperatures between 10 and 16 K in order to investigate the reactions between H2S molecules and H atoms on interstellar ice analogs. The changes in the solid phase during H-atom bombardment were monitored in situ by means of reflection absorption infrared spectroscopy (RAIRS), and desorbed species were complementarily measured with a quadrupole mass spectrometer (QMS). Results. We confirmed the formation of H2S2 via reactions involving H2S + H and quantified its formation cross section under the employed experimental conditions. Additionally, we directly assessed the chemical desorption of H2S by measuring the gas-phase desorption signals with the QMS, providing unambiguous desorption cross sections. Chemical desorption of H2S2 was not observed. The relative decrease of H2S ices by chemical desorption changed from ~85% to ~74% between temperatures of 10 and 16 K, while the decrease as the result of H2S2 formation was enhanced from ~15% to ~26%, suggesting an increasingly relevant sulfur chemistry induced by HS radicals at warmer environments. The astronomical implications are further discussed.

Oxygen-bearing organic molecules in comet 67P’s dusty coma: First evidence for abundant heterocycles

The puzzling complexity of terrestrial biomolecules is driving the search for complex organic molecules in the interstellar medium (ISM) and serves as a motivation for many in situ studies of reservoirs of extraterrestrial organics, from meteorites and interplanetary dust particles to comets and asteroids. Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P), the best-studied comet to date, has been visited and accompanied for 2 yr by the European Space Agency’s Rosetta spacecraft. Around 67P’s perihelion and under dusty conditions, the high-resolution mass spectrometer on board Rosetta has provided a spectacular glimpse into this comet’s chemical complexity. For this work, we analyzed the O-bearing organic volatiles in unprecedented detail. Through a comparison of 67P’s inventory with molecules detected in the ISM, in other comets, and in soluble organic matter extracted from the Murchison meteorite, we also highlight the (pre)biotic relevance of different chemical groups of species. We report first evidence for abundant extraterrestrial O-bearing heterocycles (with abundances relative to methanol often on the order of 10% and a relative error margin of 30–50%) and various representatives of other molecule classes, such as carboxylic acids and esters, aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols. As with the pure hydrocarbons, some hydrogenated forms seem to be dominant over their dehydrogenated counterparts. An interesting example is tetrahydrofuran, as it might be a more promising candidate for searches in the ISM than the long-sought furan. Our findings not only support and guide future efforts to investigate the origins of chemical complexity in space, but they also strongly encourage the study, in the laboratory as well as by modeling, of such topics as the ratios of unbranched versus branched species and hydrogenated versus dehydrogenated species in astrophysical ice analogs.

A review on the preparation techniques and geotechnical behaviour of icy lunar regolith simulants

This review provides an in-depth analysis of the methods used to produce icy regolith simulants with a focus on the Moon. Current knowledge of the form and morphology of ice on the Moon is limited, yet a wide range of studies have used ice and regolith analogues to simulate the icy material in lunar cold traps. The physical properties of ice on the Moon may vary significantly depending on its form as either an amorphous or crystalline solid, as well as its physical texture with lunar regolith. As a result, the choice of a particular preparation technique used to create an icy regolith simulant may directly impact the results of a study. It is found that sample preparation techniques can be broadly classified based on the mechanism of ice formation, proposed as either the freezing of liquid to solid, direct deposition (desublimation) of vapor to solid, or the comminution of large blocks to smaller fragments. Secondary growth structures including re-cementation, vapor re-deposition or ductile deformation of ice can also be achieved by post-processing techniques like thermal or pressure-induced metamorphism of the ice. Differences in the form and morphology of icy regolith is also found to significantly influence geotechnical behaviour to a greater extent than changes in ice content, bulk density or temperature. Specifically, vapor-deposited and amorphous ices which best simulate the formation conditions of ice on the Moon are the weakest, whilst ice-cemented ’mud-pies’ which are commonly produced by gradually freezing simulant mixtures containing liquid water, which is not stable on the Moon, can be orders of magnitude stronger. The limitations of current simulants are highlighted, and several opportunities to combine or improve existing techniques are provided. In conclusion, further study using techniques that involve comminution and deposition of ice in the absence of the liquid phase of water are recommended to better emulate the formation and weathering pathways of icy regolith on the Moon, and ultimately its physical properties.