Hypothetical Construct Research Articles

Scientific ability and creativity

Following an introductory definition of ‘scientific ability and creativity’, product‐oriented, personality and social psychological approaches to studying scientific ability are examined with reference to competence and performance. Studies in the psychometric versus cognitive psychological paradigms are dealt with in more detail. These two research strategies complement each other in describing and explaining scientific ability and creativity in the field of science and technology. Whereas psychometric studies seem to be essential for diagnostic and prognostic purposes, cognitive psychological studies help to explain the development of individual competencies and excellent performances. In the last two decades, another research paradigm has arisen that has been characterized as ‘giftedness as developing expertise’. The so‐called ‘expert‐novice paradigm’ is based on a dynamic concept of giftedness in which creativity and motivation play an indispensable role. As an example of this approach, the Munich Dynamic Ability Achievement Model (MDAAM)—an extended version of the Munich Model of Giftedness (MMG)—will be discussed in greater detail. Furthermore, empirical data from the author's studies of scientific ability and technical creativity will be presented and their theoretical context described. Finally, various possibilities for nurturing scientifically and creatively talented adolescents and adults are discussed, with sex‐related problems being touched upon. Generally, the hypothetical construct ‘scientific ability’ can be defined as scientific thinking potential or as a special talent for excellence in (natural) sciences. Similar to this definition, ‘scientific creativity’ or ‘technical creativity’ can be conceptualized as individual and social capacities for solving complex scientific and technical problems in an innovative and productive way. Both descriptive and explanatory terms are necessary for a theoretically and practically efficient definition. This further necessitates different research strategies, which will be demonstrated with respect to several study examples.

Attitudes as Object–Evaluation Associations of Varying Strength

Historical developments regarding the attitude concept are reviewed, and set the stage for consideration of a theoretical perspective that views attitude, not as a hypothetical construct, but as evaluative knowledge. A model of attitudes as object-evaluation associations of varying strength is summarized, along with research supporting the model's contention that at least some attitudes are represented in memory and activated automatically upon the individual's encountering the attitude object. The implications of the theoretical perspective for a number of recent discussions related to the attitude concept are elaborated. Among these issues are the notion of attitudes as "constructions," the presumed malleability of automatically-activated attitudes, correspondence between implicit and explicit measures of attitude, and postulated dual or multiple attitudes.

Felt Security as a Normative Resource: Evidence for an Elemental Risk Regulation System?

The secure base concept proposed by attachment theorists has often seemed little more than a colorful metaphor, a hypothetical construct that only comes alive in images of a child's exploration beh...

Amplification of the Concept of Erroneous Meaning in Psychodynamic Science and in the Consulting Room

Previous papers dealt with the concept of psyche as that dynamic field which underlies the subjective experience of mind. A new paradigm, psychodynamic science, was suggested for dealing with subjective data. The venue of the psychotherapeutic consulting room is now brought directly into science, expanding the definition of psychotherapy to include both humanistic and scientific elements. Certain concepts were introduced to amplify this new scientific model, including psyche as hypothetical construct, the concept of meaning as replacement for operational validation in scientific investigation, the synonymity of meaning and insight, and the concept of synchronicity, together with the meaning-connected affect of numinosity. The presence of unhealthy anxiety as the conservative ego attempts to preserve its integrity requires a deeper look at the concept of meaning. This leads to a distinction between meaning and erroneous meaning. The main body of this paper amplifies that distinction, and introduces the concept of intolerance of ambiguity in the understanding of erroneous meanings and their connection with human neurosis.

An uncertain harvest: a case study of implementation of innovation

Starting in 1997, a sophisticated, outcomes‐based curriculum was to be implemented in South African schools. This study examines and analyses how science teachers in one rural school responded to the demands of this new curriculum. I consider the capacity of the school and the extent to which outside support and pressure was provided. The levels of implementation are analysed in terms of a proposed ‘zone of feasible innovation’, a hypothetical construct which suggests that innovation should not exceed current practice by too large a gap between existing practice and the demands of the innovation.

Understanding parental monitoring through analysis of monitoring episodes in context.

Abstract A model of monitoring interactions was proposed that is based on behavioural principles and places episodic parent-adolescent interactions at the centre of analysis for monitoring. The processmonitoring model contends that monitoring is an interactive process between parents and their adolescents, nested within a social setting. In the model it is proposed that monitoring occurs in discrete episodes that change over the course of adolescent development. To explain monitoring interactions it is essential to expand research to include a functional assessment of monitoring exchanges between parents and adolescents and to also measure the quality of parent-adolescent relationships, consider adolescent age and development, parental characteristics, and the context of the family. Keywords: parental monitoring, adolescent problem behaviour, parent-adolescent relationships ********** Parental monitoring is a hypothetical psychological construct that has been used to explain a composite of parenting practice variables including awareness, communication, concern, supervision, and tracking of adolescent behavior. Poor monitoring is consistently associated with antisocial behavior in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies (Patrick, Snyder, Schrepferman, & Snyder, 2005; Patterson, Capaldi, & Bank, 1991; Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992; Patterson & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1984; Patterson & Yoerger, 1997). Problem behavior has strong associations with deviant peers, and there is a flow on effect of further reducing monitoring (Ary, Duncan, Duncan, & Hops, 1999; Dishion, Patterson, Stoolmiller, & Skinner, 1991; Smetana & Daddis, 2002). Poor monitoring is also consistently associated with alcohol use, tobacco and substance use, higher sexual risk taking, poorer contraceptive use, lowered safe sex practices, and unwanted sex (Barnes & Farrell, 1992; Barnes, Reifman, Farrell, & Dintcheff, 2000; DiClemente et al., 2001; Li, Feigelman, & Stanton, 2000; Luster & Small, 1997; Metzler, Noell, Biglan, Ary, & Smolkowski, 1994; Reifman, Barnes, Dintcheff, Farrell, & Uhteg, 1998; Thomas, Reifman, Barnes, & Farrell, 2000). Poorly monitored adolescents are also more likely to report depressive symptoms, lowered self-esteem, and poor academic achievement (Crouter, MacDermid, McHale, & Perry-Jenkins, 1990; Gil-Rivas, Greenberger, Chen, & Lopez-Lena, 2003; Hartos & Power, 2000b). Despite the many studies that have shown poor monitoring is associated with problem behaviors in adolescents there are very few clinical studies reporting on interventions to improve monitoring. Of note is the work of Dishion and colleagues (2003) who recently demonstrated that it is possible to change parental monitoring and reduce problem behavior. More of this type of experimental intervention research is needed. Patterson and colleagues (Patterson & Bank, 1987; Patterson et al., 1992; Patterson & StouthamerLoeber, 1984) developed the parental monitoring construct in their seminal work with the Oregon Youth Study. Presently there are two prominent monitoring definitions in the research. The original definition of monitoring is stated as: parental awareness of the child's activities, and communication to the child that the parent is concerned about, and aware of, the child's activities (Dishion & McMahon, 1998). The important aspect of this definition is that monitoring is a broad term that covers both structuring of the adolescents' environment, and tracking their activities. The alternative definition comes from research by Kerr and Stattin (Kerr & Stattin, 2000; Kerr, Stattin, & Trost, 1999; Stattin & Kerr, 2000) and purports that monitoring is defined by parental knowledge of adolescent activity and that knowledge depends on adolescents' willingness to disclose. This knowledge definition is narrower and focuses on parental knowledge of adolescent behavior during freetime. …

民間スポーツ・フィットネスクラブにおけるヒューマン・サービス組織特性に関する実証的研究

Commercial sport and fitness clubs (CSFCs) are human service organizations (HSOs) run as businesses that produce and deliver quality sport services to sports consumers. Although such CSFCs are run as service businesses, a bureaucracy system has been applied to many sport management organizations. The purpose of this study was to examine and explain the phenomenon of the HSO in CSFCs as sport management organizations.In order to pursue this purpose, the hypothetical construct of the “HSO orientation” was operationalized by a total of 50 statements categorized under five dimensions such as “flat hierarchy”, “empowerment”, “openness”, “innovativeness”, and “organizational learning”. Questionnaires containing the 50 statements were distributed to a total of 693 CSFC managers. Two hundred eighteen usable questionnaires were returned, resulting in a response rate of 31.5%. The statistical techniques employed to identify the overall HSO structure in CSFCs were Item-Total correlation analysis, factor analysis, principal component analysis, Cronbach’s reliability analysis, and t-test.The main findings are summarized as follows : 1) Item-Total correlation analysis eliminated 8 statements that lacked a significant correlation. Also, factor analysis of 42 statements excluding the previous eight eliminated 3 statements with a factor loading of 0.4 or less. Then, using principal component analysis and reliability analysis, the HSO orientation construct in CSFCs was identified in these 39 statements in the five dimensions.2) When the T-scores computed for all five dimensions were compared for differences (low versus high) in organizational performance using t-test, T-scores differed significantly for flat hierarchy, innovativeness, and organizational learning. That is to say, a high performance organization’s T-scores were higher than those of a low performance organization for these three components.In conclusion, the present findings suggest that the above five dimensions can be a valid viewpoint of organization design for creating the HSO in CSFCs.

Development and testing of a Clinical Learning Environment Diagnostic Inventory for baccalaureate nursing students

Aim. This paper reports the development and testing of the psychometric properties of the Clinical Learning Environment Diagnostic Inventory for baccalaureate nursing students. Background. The quality of the clinical learning environment is an essential factor in determining the quality of nursing students' clinical experience. It is also well-recognized that the clinical setting can be a source of stress and anxiety for students. To design an optimal clinical learning environment for students, instruments based on the cognitive and socio-emotional aspects of the learning process are necessary. Method. The hypothetical construct of the clinical learning environment was derived from a comprehensive review of the literature, including experiential learning theory and the epistemology of practice. Developing the instrument involved the collection of items through semi-structured interviews, assessing content validity and determining the scaling. After a pilot study, the instrument was tested with 312 undergraduate students and 157 preceptors between September and December 2004. The factor structure was determined by exploratory factor analysis. Results. Exploratory factor analysis produced a five-factor solution that was similar to the hypothetical model. Cronbach's alpha internal consistency reliability coefficients ranged from 0.65 to 0.77 across the five factors. Three-week test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from 0.59 to 0.74. Criterion-related validity and construct validity were estimated by the correlation between the Clinical Learning Environment Diagnostic Inventory and appropriate other instruments and a set of comparison data obtained from the students and preceptors. Conclusion. The findings yielded acceptable estimates of reliability and validity of the Clinical Learning Environment Diagnostic Inventory. Therefore, this instrument is considered useful for assessing learning environments in clinical settings.

Speculation and explicit identification as judgmental standards for positive or negative reinforcement: A comment on Baron and Galizio (2005)

In a recent article published in The Behavior Analyst, Baron and Galizio (2005) revisited the question proposed by Michael (1975) on the distinction between positive and negative reinforcement (Skinner, 1953). They claimed that “the operational specification of which reinforcers are positive and which are negative contains an essential ambiguity” (p. 95). The conundrum presented by Baron and Galizio is represented in a case of a rat pressing a lever to turn on a heat lamp in a cold room (Weiss & Laties, 1961). This case is conventionally treated as positive reinforcement, because the lever pressing causes heat. Baron and Galizio, however, argue that one may regard it as negative reinforcement, because the lever pressing terminates coldness. Although this argument is logically sound, I prefer the first view, because the heat is a physical entity in the rat's environment, but “coldness” is a hypothetical state of the rat and is also a secondary concept meaning “lack of heat.” Other ambiguous cases of positive reinforcement presented by Baron and Galizio (2005) include a rat pressing a lever for delivery of a food pellet (or removal of a state of food deprivation, i.e., “hunger”), people working for delivery of money (or ending of a moneyless period, i.e., “poverty”), a child turning on the TV to watch a cartoon program (or termination of “boredom”). Baron and Galizio also presented ambiguous cases of negative reinforcement such as an animal making response for removal of shock (or the onset of the stimuli correlated with safety). I agree that there exists an essential ambiguity in specification of positive and negative reinforcement. But, we should have general standards for decision concerning the positive and negative types of reinforcement, and I feel that Baron and Galizio (2005) neglect them in the major part of their article. The judgmental standards distinguish between speculation and identification. As behavior analysts, we should prefer less speculation and more explicit identification (Skinner, 1950). In the case of the rat making a lever press for a food pellet, the pellet is countable and we can directly manipulate it. However, the “hunger” is a hypothetical construct (i.e., a guess of the rat's internal state). Money is also material for people, but “poverty” is secondarily defined. The cartoon program is on the air, but the termination of a child's “boredom” is not identified (i.e., if it exists, its termination is attainable by other TV programs). The removal of shock for a rat in a shuttle box is easily controlled and tested by an experimenter, but the stimuli correlated with safety are harder to identify specifically unless we preliminarily arranged a cue–shock contingency. Thus, categorizing this case as positive reinforcement is awkward (I do not mean that such analysis is meaningless, however; see below). Taking the “less speculation, more explicit identification” approach to the categorization conundrum has a practical advantage, because it permits behavior analysts to manipulate the environment directly rather than to burden such changes with speculation. It is noteworthy here that Baron and Galizio (2005) acknowledged this point: “When we are talking about reinforcers we are referring to environmental events rather than cognitive or physiological happenings” (p. 98). They seem to overlook that perspective in their discussion of the positive–negative distinction. Of course, there is some merit to the “two-sides” approach. Both positive and negative types of reinforcement may be operative in a single case. For example, as noted by Baron and Galizio (2005), self-injurious behavior (Iwata et al., 1994) can be maintained by escape from task demands (negative reinforcement) and attention of others (positive reinforcement). I disagree, however, with Baron and Galizio's claim that attention from others may be equivalent to relief from loneliness. “Relief from loneliness” is speculative, in that it depends on an inference about a behavioral or cognitive state. Similarly, it is not simple to equate escape from an aversive task with access to an alternative activity, because the latter is not well identified. Admittedly, examining a case from two perspectives might bring better understanding of a particular case and provide additional options for therapeutic interventions in the field of applied behavior analysis. I recommend, nevertheless, a “single-side” view as a first approach. Without basic training in viewing a case from a fixed standpoint, students are likely to have a hard time learning to take a two-sided view. Thus, I think that we must keep the distinction between positive and negative reinforcement, especially in the introductory course of behavior analysis.

Estrogen and Different Aspects of Vascular Disease in Women and Men

See related article, pages 477–484 Considerable evidence indicates that sex hormones have an important influence on cardiovascular physiology and pathology.1,2 Recent work suggests that a mechanism based on estrogen receptor-alpha (ESR1) contributes to a range of structural and functional responses that relate to vascular disease. Most of this work focuses on ESR1 activity within the endothelium and yields variable findings due, at least in part, to differences in the vascular bed or species studied, as well as other experimental conditions such as age, estrogen status, degree of preconstriction, etc. But many findings in conduit arteries (eg, more frequent plaque erosion, increased wall stiffness, spasm, etc) and microvessels (eg, reduced coronary flow reserve, hot flashes, etc) implicate smooth muscle cells (SMCs) in gender differences in vascular disease. These cells are directly responsible for extracellular matrix production and assure the integrity of the artery wall. They may be decreased, apoptotic, or dysfunctional in terms of synthesis and repair of extracellular matrix, which is destroyed in vulnerable plaque by macrophages. In this issue of Circulation Research Montague and colleagues3 report that activation of ESR1 decreases human aorta SMC differentiation (Figure). Importantly, they found that SMCs of men, compared with women, had reduced ESR1 expression associated with increased differentiation markers. Their work suggests that ESR1 activation switches SMC to a form that may promote plaque vulnerability. Could different activational states of ESR1 be responsible for shifting the functional characteristics of SMCs toward a phenotype that explains some complexities of gender-related differences in vascular disease? Hypothetical construct based on Montague et al suggests that the activational state …

Measuring Perceived Stigmatization Among Pediatric Burn Survivors

The Perceived Stigmatization Questionnaire (PSQ) is a recently developed measure of perceived stigmatization (PS). Among a sample 361 adult burn survivors, the PSQ evidenced 3 factors (absence of friendly behavior, confused/staring behavior and hostile behavior), had strong reliability indices, and correlated with related constructs (Lawrence et. al., 2006). The current study tests the measurement invariance of the PSQ in a pediatric burn sample. Measurement invariance in psychological questionnaires implies that the relationship between the questions and the hypothetical construct they purport to measure (i.e., PS) is the same in different populations. Thus, scores on that measure can be compared across samples. 188 pediatric burn survivors (ages 8 to 18) completed a questionnaire packet including the PSQ. Their parents completed a demographic questionnaire. The sample characteristics were as follows: 40% female; 56% Euro-American, 22% African-American, 14% Hispanic, and 8% Other; Mean Age = 13.6 (SD = 2.5); Mean Age Burned =...

Toward a unified hypothesis of interneuronal modulation.

It is an apt oversimplification to state that the brain contains two functionally defined types of neurones, the principal neurones and the interneurones. In this abridged neuro-mology the principal neurones carry information from place to place, while interneurones act locally to shape that information once it arrives at its destination. Interneurones do the pacing, the timing and the synchronizing of many neural circuits. They curtail and allow information passage through neural circuits. They do this in both spacial and temporal domains. Because of their central role, those influences that control and/or modulate interneuronal function will be among the most important to understand. The study of interneuronal function has proceeded for the past three decades along two broad frontiers: the classification of the basic properties (anatomical, neurochemical and electrophysiological) of these neurones and the modulation of their activity by neurotransmitters and other substances. Both of these lines of enquiry have had as an underlying goal understanding the rules that govern the influence of interneurones over neural circuitry (Maccaferri & Lacaille, 2003). Within this quest, the grail (perhaps not holy, but at least very nice!) has been a hypothetical construct that would unify the anatomical, chemical and physiological properties with modulatory findings. One of the most potent modulatory substances acting on interneurones is acetylcholine, working through muscarinic receptors. Data that had been collected so far has seemed to suggest that with regard to muscarinic action, there was at best, a weak relationship between morphology and modulation. (Parra et al. 1998; McQuiston & Madison, 1999a). With the publication of an article in this issue of The Journal of Physiology, Lawrence et al. (2006) have taken a large step forward in unifying these two threads of investigation. By confining their analysis to a larger number of interneurones within one layer of CA1 hippocampus (stratum (s) oriens), they have found a stronger correlation between structure and function than was previously appreciated. For the purposes of this study, interneurones of the hippocampal stratum oriens were divided into two anatomical subtypes, the so-called O-LM (oriens–lacanosum/moleculare) interneurones and non-O-LM s. oriens interneurones. O-LM neurones gained their name from their anatomical morphology. Their soma is found exclusively in the s. oriens (O), but their axonal projection travels to and ramifies primarily in the s. lacanosum moleculare (LM). From their anatomical shape, it has been deduced that this type of interneurone serves the function of ‘listening’ to input from contralateral hippocampus, and then inhibiting ipsilateral perforant path input to the principal pyramidal cells. Thus, they would serve as a filter to sharpen information lateralization. The non-O-LM cells, on the other hand, comprise several anatomical subtypes, suggestive of different roles. More specifically, Lawrence et al. (2006) have shown that O-LM interneurones are made more excitable by muscarinic receptor activation. In addition, a large after-depolarizing potential (ADP) is evoked by muscarinic receptor activation via the blockade of an M-current, a calcium-activated potassium current and a non-selective cation current (e.g. Fig. 1). This latter effect is mediated by M1 and/or M3 muscarinic receptor subtypes. In contrast, non O-LM interneurones do not tend to display an ADP or a frank depolarization, and tend to either increase or decrease their excitability in the face of muscarinic agonism. While Lawrence et al. confine their analysis to the effects of muscarinic agonism in hippocampal CA1 stratum oriens interneurones, the significance of the study goes beyond just suggesting principles of cholinergic control of GABA release in the hippocampus. It would be fair to say that these results, along with others that are beginning to suggest specific correlation between the basic properties of interneurones and their transmitter/modulator sensitivity (e.g. McQuiston & Madison, 1999b; Klausberger et al. 2003; Pouille & Scanziani, 2004) help a great deal in the march toward a unified hypothesis of interneuronal function, in that they demonstrate that the anatomical configuration, and thus the putative role of an interneurone in the neural circuitry, is correlated with the modulation to which that interneurone is subject. Figure 1 An example of a muscarine-induced afterdepolarizing potential (ADP) that follows a current-induced depolarization in a hippocampal interneurone

Robustness of buildings and HVAC systems as a hypothetical construct explaining differences in building related health and comfort symptoms and complaint rates

In statistics, the ability of a certain technique to deliver accurate results, although its assumptions are violated, is called the robustness of that technique. Analogously, the robustness of an (office) building or an HVAC system can be defined as the measure by which the building or the system lives up to its design purpose in a real life situation. Lack of robustness can be caused by hypersensitivity to aberration from the design assumptions, unfeasible maintenance demands, integration of heating and ventilation, regulating supply air volumes and lack of transparency to occupants and buildings management. The robustness hypothesis helps explain the results of field studies and mitigation investigations and has enough scientific credibility to warrant further research. It turns out that source control may be viewed as a special case of robustness. The concept of robustness has important ramifications for design practice and is totally in sync with recent developments in indoor environmental research.

A theoretical interpersonal style repertoire for middle-level managers

The development of the interpersonal behaviour of managers has received a good deal of attention, especially in terms of the most appropriate interpersonal styles in the work context and the skills involved in developing and maintaining effective interpersonal relationships. The design of effective interpersonal development programs requires a thorough evaluation of an individual’s interpersonal development needs. In order to do this, evaluators should have an understanding of the most appropriate interpersonal styles for managers. Given the aims of the investigation, the approach that was followed was to evaluate the relevant literature in this field. The theoretical goal was to study and describe the most appropriate theoretical interpersonal style repertoire of middle-level managers using the interpersonal approach, and specifically the 1982 Interpersonal Circle. The conclusions support the notion that dominant, assured, exhibitionistic, social, friendly, warm and trusting styles are the most relevant of the 16 interpersonal segments, while the assured-dominant, social-exhibitionistic and warm-friendly octants are viewed as the most appropriate. Opsomming Die ontwikkeling van die interpersoonlike gedrag van bestuurders het reeds heelwat aandag gekry. Dit geld veral vir aangeleenthede wat verband hou met die mees toepaslike interpersoonlike style binne die werkskonteks en die vaardighede wat die ontwikkeling van effektiewe interpersoonlike verhoudings onderlê. Die ontwikkeling van effektiewe interpersoonlike ontwikkelingsprogramme vereis ’n deeglike evaluering van ’n individu se interpersoonlike ontwikkelingsbehoeftes. Om dit te vermag, is dit nodig vir evalueerders om te verstaan wat die mees toepaslike interpersoonlike style vir bestuurders is. Gegee die doelwitte van die ondersoek is die metode wat gevolg is ’n evaluering van die relevante literatuur in hierdie gebied. Die teoretiese doel was om die mees toepaslike teoretiese interpersoonlike stylrepertoire van middelvlak bestuurders te bestudeer en te beskryf deur gebruik te maak van die interpersoonlike benadering en spesifiek van die 1982 Interpersoonlike Sirkel. Die gevolgtrekkings steun die aanname dat dominante, versekerde, sosiale, vriendelike, warm en vertrouende style die mees relevante van die 16 interpersoonlike segmente is. In dié verband kan die versekerde-dominante, sosiale-ekshibisionistiese en warm-vriendelike oktante as die mees toepaslike beskou word.

A statistical model for binocular rivalry

A probabilistic model is presented for the phase durations in binocular rivalry experiments. The hypothetical construct of inhibition or reaction inhibition is used to account for the length of the successive phases of left-eye dominance and right-eye dominance. In accordance with Hull's Postulate X.B. it is assumed that the inhibition increases linearly at rate a1 during periods of left-eye dominance and decreases linearly at rate a0 during periods of right-eye dominance. Two different versions of the proposed model are presented: the beta and the Bessel inhibition models. Inhibition fluctuates between the boundaries 0 and 1 in the beta inhibition model and between -infinity and +infinity in the Bessel inhibition model. The transition rates lambda1(t) for switches from a state of left-eye dominance to a state of right-eye dominance, and lambda0(t) for switches from a state of right-eye dominance to a state of left-eye dominance depend on inhibition: lambda1(t)=l1 (Y(t)), lambda0(t)=l0(Y(t)), where l1 is a non-decreasing function and l0 is a non-increasing function. In the beta inhibition model l1(y)=c1/(1 - y) and l0(y)=c0/y. In the Bessel inhibition model l1(y)=u1e(y) and l0(y)=u0/e(y). Special attention is given to the derivation of the expectation of the stationary phase durations.

Obsolescent Corporate Cultures

Informal cultures exist in every organization, and in every nation. They can provide incentives for greatness as well as barriers to the necessary changes required for survival. Cultures evolve, based on methods, procedures and biases which had their origin in pragmatic ways of coping with the problems of the time. However, both the basic premises and the core competencies on which they are based can become both obsolescent, and resistant to change. A national culture supportive of risk investment is critical for the creation of wealth (1.2). The U. S is known for its entrepreneurs and for its entrepreneurial culture, which has provided incentives for, and removed many of the barriers to, business creation. A similar environment can be replicated almost anywhere, and entrepreneurs fortunately exist in all nations. For example, Hernando deSoto, a Peruvian, based oil a seven-year study of Latin American economies (3), has pointed out that the definition of an underdeveloped country is one in which entrepreneurial activity is not allowed. The entrepreneurs are there, but they are confined to the underground economy. When personal property rights, the rule of law, and incentives for risk investments are put in place, they surface immediately. The U.S. expanded its supportive culture in the early 1980s. During the late 1970s, stagflation' has resulted when the top tax rate for individuals was 70 percent, and the capital gains tax on profits from investments was a punitive 49 percent. When the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 was put in place, the top tax rate for individuals was reduced to 28 percent, and the capital gains tax was reduced to 20 percent. This released enormous sources of funding for investments. As a result, unprecedented changes have since occurred. Historically, after over two centuries of economic growth, by 1980 the U.S. had 4.6 million incorporated companies. However, since 1982, 20 million additional small businesses have incorporated, and about 98 percent of these have fewer than 100 employees, while 84 percent have fewer than 20 employees (4). These small businesses (the new economy) now account for almost 65 percent of the U.S. GDP, while old economy large businesses have declined steadily from over 60 percent to about 35 percent of GDP today. This small business revolution, which was jumpstarted by the Economic Recovery Tax Act, resulted in a tripling of startups to 600,000-800,000 per year, and has generated about 95 percent of all American wealth ($44 trillion since 1982 ). About 80 million jobs also were created, since 1982, most of them in companies with fewer than 20 people (5). Sadly, old economy businesses simultaneously lost about 40 million jobs in downsizing and restructuring. Innovation now has become the core competency of the U.S. and it is the primary source of productive growth. A shift has resulted, which has created a sustained environment for corporate investment that is unique in history. The recession of 2001-3 temporarily delayed this process, but it has since resumed. Fortuitously, it builds on an unprecedented database of advanced technology, involving about 90 percent of all scientific knowledge, generated over just the last 30 years (6). This is the seed corn of innovation. Elements of Radical Change As a direct result of this shift, a pervasive restructuring is now taking place for manufacturing, marketing and distribution functions. To survive, most manufacturers now must morph into a role of continuous innovation, while outsourcing their components and systems, and then marketing and distributing both their own and their competitors' products and services (the ultimate in corporate cultural heresy). This disconcerting projection is not a hypothetical construct. Emerging models are already in operation: For instance, CarsDirect, one of the largest automobile dealers in the U. …

The contribution of temperament and character to schizotypy multidimensionality

Schizotypy could be viewed either as an underlying “personality organization” that includes the “liability” to schizophrenia, i.e., as a hypothetical latent construct, or it could be referred to the phenotypic manifestations of a particular personality organization. The psychobiologic model of the structure of personality accounts for dimensions of both temperament and character. This study examined the covariances between Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) scores and aspects of Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) scores in a nonclinical sample. The results showed the relationship between the number of schizotypal phenotypic traits, as quantified by SPQ measures, and a specific configuration of character, namely, high self-transcendence (ST), low self-directedness (SD), and low cooperativeness (C). Data suggested that the unique combination of high ST, low SD, and low C seems to lead to a special risk for schizotypy. In particular, ST is a predictor either of psychosis proneness or mature, effective adapted and self-satisfied personalities, depending on its interaction with other TCI dimensions, both temperament and character.

Cognitive reserve and the neurobiology of cognitive aging

A hypothetical construct of “cognitive reserve” is widely used to explain how, in the face of neurodegenerative changes that are similar in nature and extent, individuals vary considerably in the severity of cognitive aging and clinical dementia. Intelligence, education and occupational level are believed to be major active components of cognitive reserve. Here, we summarize the main features of cognitive aging and their neuropathological correlates. We describe the neurobiology of cognitive aging and conclude that perturbations of neural health attributable to oxidative stress and inflammatory processes alone are insufficient to distinguish cognitive aging from Alzheimer's disease. We introduce the concept of cognitive reserve and illustrate its utility in explaining individual differences in cognitive aging. Structural and functional brain imaging studies suggest plausible neural substrates of cognitive reserve, probably involving processes that support neuroplasticity in the aging brain. The cognitive reserve hypothesis conforms with reported associations between early and mid life lifestyle choices, early education, lifelong dietary habit, leisure pursuits and the retention of late life mental ability.

On the nature of psychodynamic science.

In a previous article (Brookes, 2003), it was suggested that a science devoted to the subjective data obtained in psychodynamic therapy would require classification of psyche, the object of study, as a hypothetical construct, a classic concept in the philosophy of psychological science. The present article argues for and outlines a necessarily new and unique scientific paradigm for psychodynamics by further suggesting (1) that positivistic science is not appropriate to the phenomenological data which psychodynamic concepts explain, (2) that retroductive inferences are preferable to inductive or deductive inferences in handling such data, (3) that the concept of meaning as scientific validation is more suitable to psychodynamic science than are the concepts of measurement and operational validation, and (4) that meaningful validation is best elaborated through the application of the concepts of erroneous meaning, of synchronicity, and of numinosity. These and other ideas are briefly described, and will be elaborated further in subsequent papers.

Nature vs. nurture: managing relationships between forests, agroforestry and wild biodiversity

Many agroforestry systems are found in places that otherwise would be appropriate for natural forests, and often have replaced them. Humans have had a profound influence on forests virtually everywhere they both are found. Thus ‘natural’ defined as ‘without human influence’ is a hypothetical construct, though one that has assumed mythological value among many conservationists. Biodiversity is a forest value that does not carry a market price. It is the foundation, however, upon which productive systems depend. The relationship between agroforestry and the wild biodiversity contained in more natural forests is a complicated one, depending on the composition of the agroforestry system itself and the way it is managed. Complex forest gardens are more supportive of biodiversity than monocrop systems, shade coffee more than sun coffee, and systems using native plants tend to be more biologically diverse. Nonnative plants, especially potentially invasive alien species, threaten biodiversity and need to be avoided. The relationship between forests, agroforestry and wild biodiversity can be made most productive through applying adaptive management approaches that incorporate ongoing research and monitoring in order to feed information back into the management system. Maintaining diversity in approaches to management of agroforestry systems will provide humanity with the widest range of options for adapting to changing conditions. Clear government policy frameworks are needed that support alliances among the many interest groups involved in forest biodiversity.