Hypnotic Induction Research Articles

Self-Talk Monitoring and Utilization for Enhancing Hypnotic Induction

In contemporary hypnosis, language constitutes the hypnotist’s rudimentary instrument for developing and utilizing the hypnotic trance. In the current article, the author proposes a theoretical and clinical approach for using patient self-talk during hypnotic induction by discussing the influence of self-talk on consciousness regulation. The article includes some historical background on the use of language during hypnotic communication and demonstrates some clinical applications of patients self-talk in the process of hypnotic induction.

Delta coherence in resting-state EEG predicts the reduction in cigarette craving after hypnotic aversion suggestions

Cigarette craving is a key contributor of nicotine addiction. Hypnotic aversion suggestions have been used to help smoking cessation and reduce smoking relapse rates but its neural basis is poorly understood. This study investigated the underlying neural basis of hypnosis treatment for nicotine addiction with resting state Electroencephalograph (EEG) coherence as the measure. The sample consisted of 42 male smokers. Cigarette craving was measured by the Tobacco Craving Questionnaire. The 8-minute resting state EEG was recorded in baseline state and after hypnotic induction in the hypnotic state. Then a smoking disgust suggestion was performed. A significant increase in EEG coherence in delta and theta frequency, and significant decrease in alpha and beta frequency, between the baseline and the hypnotic state was found, which may reflect alterations in consciousness after hypnotic induction. More importantly, the delta coherence between the right frontal region and the left posterior region predicted cigarette craving reduction after hypnotic aversion suggestions. This suggests that the functional connectivity between these regions plays an important role in reducing cigarette cravings via hypnotic aversion suggestions. Thus, these brain regions may serve as an important target to treat nicotine addiction, such as stimulating these brain regions via repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation.

The Hypnotic Induction in the Broad Scheme of Hypnosis: A Sociocognitive Perspective

Researchers and clinicians typically divide hypnosis into two distinct parts: the induction and the suggestions that follow. We suggest that this distinction is arbitrary and artificial. Different definitions of hypnosis ascribe different roles to the hypnotic induction, yet none clearly specifies the mechanisms that mediate or moderate subjective and behavioral responses to hypnotic suggestions. Researchers have identified few if any differences in responding across diverse hypnotic inductions, and surprisingly little research has focused on the specific ingredients that optimize responsiveness. From a sociocognitive perspective, we consider the role of inductions in the broader scheme of hypnosis and suggest that there is no clear line of demarcation between prehypnotic information, the induction, suggestions, and other constituents of the hypnotic context. We describe research efforts to maximize responses to hypnotic suggestions, which encompass the induction and other aspects of the broader hypnotic framework, and conclude with a call for more research on inductions and suggestions to better understand their role within hypnotic interventions in research and clinical contexts.

Out-of-Body-Experiences: A Phenomenological Comparison of Different Causes

In out-of-body experiences (OBEs) the typifying phenomenal experience is the continuity/existence of the self, outside the boundaries of the physical body. In this work several characteristics of these experiences were investigated using the accounts of participants who underwent them via three forms of induction: (a) by way of hypnotic induction; (b) after traumatic physical experiences that can be defined as near-death experiences (NDEs); (c) and via non-traumatic experiences, such as meditation. In each group, these experiences were described generally as positive and entail a state of greater phenomenal clarity compared to ordinary consciousness. Furthermore, a decrease in perception of time and one’s personal boundaries were reported. The lack of substantial differences across groups suggests that all OBEs shares similar characteristics which are not necessarily modulated by induction type. Nonetheless, there were some differences across groups which were noteworthy; namely, hypnotically-induced OBEs resembled more closely a phenomenology of NDEs than that of typical spontaneous accounts.

Inhibition of retrieval in hypnotic amnesia: dissociation by upper-alpha gating.

Hypnotic amnesia is a functional dissociation from awareness during which information from specific neural processes is unavailable to consciousness. We test the proposal that changes in topographic patterns of cortical oscillations in upper-alpha (10–12 Hz) band selectively inhibit the recall of memories during hypnotic amnesia by blocking availability of locally processed information at specific points in retrieval. Participants were prescreened for high or low hypnotic susceptibility. Following hypnotic induction, participants were presented with a series of 60 face stimuli and were required to identify affective expressions. Participants received a suggestion for amnesia for these faces. They were then presented with a set of 30 old and 30 new faces and identified each as old or new. Amnesia suggestion was lifted and recall tested using the remaining 30 old faces and another 30 new faces. Exact Low Resolution Brain Electromagnetic Tomography source analyses are reported for 64 channel event-related electroencephalogram recorded from highs showing reversible amnesia to old faces. For high-susceptible participants, the amnesia suggestion significantly increased old faces wrongly identified while for low-susceptible participants amnesia suggestion increased the new faces wrongly identified. There were no differences between high- and low-susceptible participants following reversal of the suggestion. For previously seen faces which were wrongly identified, compared to new faces correctly identified, (late) evoked upper-alpha is significantly higher in right BA7 in a region implicated in top-down executive control to assist recall of visual information. Lagged nonlinear connectivity between cortical sources in upper-alpha in the same condition showed significantly increased connectivity between right BA34 (parahippocampal gyrus) and right BAs 7, 20 and 22. Integration between these regions is essential for recall of recent faces. During amnesia, spatial and temporal coordination of upper-alpha appears to suppress integrated functioning of these regions (hence recall). These patterns were absent after reversal of amnesia suggestion.

Training in Therapy—Induction Without Scripts

Hypnotic induction for the purposes of psychotherapy is more than a collection of techniques. Instead, the induction process should be individualized to each client as Erickson (1958) explained years ago. Training professionals in hypnosis and induction then must avoid reading written scripts and healthcare professionals must understand that attention and personal contact are required in order to successfully participate in improvisational communication and the nuances of interpersonal entrainment of psychotherapy. And this all begins with the induction.

Group Hypnotizability Of Inpatient Adolescents

This study investigated group hypnotizability in 167 adolescents (ages 13-17) in an inpatient behavioral healthcare setting through use of the Waterloo-Stanford Group Scale, Form C. It also investigated the influence of hypnotic inductions on group hypnotizability. Adolescents were randomly assigned to either a group session of hypnosis (n = 84) with a hypnotic induction or a comparison “no-induction” group (n = 83) that received identical suggestions without a hypnotic induction. Adolescents’ imaginative absorption and dissociation were measured to examine their influence on hypnotizability. A between-group comparison showed the induction condition had a significantly higher score than the no-induction group on both behavioral and subjective measures of hypnotizability.

Effects of Hypnosis on Regression to Primary-Process Thinking

The authors tested the hypothesis that hypnotic age regression produces a shift from secondary- to primary-thought processing in hypnotizable participants. Thirty participants were tested for hypnotizability using the Elkins Scale of Hypnotizability (EHS). Participants were exposed to a tailored hypnotic arm-levitation induction and a hypnotic suggestion to age regress to 5 years of age and to have a dream. Primary-process thinking was assessed using the Primary-Process Thinking Scale. An independent t test with 2 levels of hypnotizability (middle and high) showed high hypnotizables demonstrated higher ratings of primary thought processing than those in the middle group.

Psychological Features of Hypnotizability: A First Step Towards Its Empirical Definition

This study examined the relationship between the Hypnotic Induction Profile (HIP) and several psychological tests: Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS), Spontaneity Assessment Inventory-Revised (SAI-R), Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES), Short-Form Boundary Questionnaire (SFBQ), Mini Locus of Control (MLOC), Testoni Death Representation Scale (TDRS), and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). Two hundred and forty volunteers were administered the above tests; 78 of them were also administered the HIP, and its scores were compared to those on the other tests. A significant correlation was found among the TAS, DES, SFBQ, and IRI. The HIP was significantly correlated to the DES (r = .19 p 1tail = .045), and the IRI-ec subscale (r = .19 p 1tail = .044); 14 test items from DES, IRI, TAS, SAIR, and SFBQ were also significantly related to the HIP. The findings suggest that hypnotizability may relate to stronger perception of the inner world, decreased aptitude for managing memory processing, and increased sensitivity and empathy.

Effects of a Hypnotic Induction and an Unpleasantness-Focused Analgesia Suggestion on Pain Catastrophizing to an Experimental Heat Stimulus: A Preliminary Study

Pain catastrophizing is associated with greater levels of pain. While many studies support the efficacy of hypnosis for pain, the effect on pain catastrophizing remains unclear. The present study evaluated the effect of hypnosis on pain catastrophizing using experimental heat stimulation. Twenty-two pain patients engaged in 3 conditions: baseline (no suggestion), hypnotic induction, and hypnotic induction plus analgesia suggestion. Participants with higher baseline pain showed a significant reduction in rumination following hypnotic induction plus analgesia suggestion and significant reductions in pain due to both the hypnotic induction alone and the hypnotic induction plus analgesia suggestion. The findings suggest that unpleasantness-focused hypnotic analgesia reduces pain via its effect on the rumination component of pain catastrophizing.

Hypnotic Induction: Enhancing Trance or Mostly Myth?

Hypnosis has often, and primarily, been portrayed as a mystical means that controls and exploits vulnerable and defenseless people. Sources accused of perpetuating hypnosis myths and misconceptions have included numerous media productions and stage demonstrations at state fairs and festivals. Ironically, one largely unexamined potential culprit disseminating misinformation about hypnosis is the field of clinical hypnosis itself. This article not only questions the legitimacy of the term “hypnotic induction” and its derivatives but also explores the potential impact these terms have on the perpetuation of hypnosis myths and misconceptions. Through an examination of a selective history of hypnotic induction, the customary language of hypnosis, and information promoted by professional hypnosis societies, some of the contributing terminology is identified. Alternative terms that more appropriately embody the manifestation of trance are offered and discussed.

Nuances and Uncertainties Regarding Hypnotic Inductions: Toward a Theoretically Informed Praxis

Although most definitions of hypnosis consider inductions as the initial stage in a hypnosis protocol, knowledge of inductions remains poor and uninformed by recent developments in theory and research. It is frequently argued that inductions play a critical role in hypnotic responding or, by contrast, are largely interchangeable and unimportant. Drawing on the literature on suggestibility, spontaneous phenomenology, neurophysiology, and cognition, this article argues that the value of inductions, as well as the potential value of inductions, is more nuanced and uncertain. Certain components of standard inductions appear to be efficacious in enhancing suggestibility, whereas others do not have any clear benefits. The impact of inductions on suggestibility seems to vary across suggestions and modes of assessment with the sources of this variability being unknown. Considering these effects, and the broader impact of inductions on spontaneous conscious states and cognition, through the lens of heterogeneity in high hypnotic suggestibility and componential models of hypnotic suggestibility may offer novel research avenues in this area. The article concludes by arguing for the practical and theory-driven optimization of inductions.

What Can a Hypnotic Induction Do?

In contrast to how recent definitions of hypnosis describe the induction, a work-sample perspective is advocated that characterizes the induction as an initial, stage-setting phase encompassing everything in a hypnotic session up to the first hypnotic suggestion of particular relevance to the therapeutic or research goals at hand. Four major ways are then discussed in which the induction could affect subsequent hypnotic responses: It may provide information about how subsequent behaviors are to be enacted; it may provide cues about the nature of the interpersonal interaction to be expected in hypnosis; it may provide meta-suggestions, defined as suggestive statements intended to enhance responses to subsequent hypnotic suggestions; and it may provide a clear transition to help allow new behaviors and experiences to emerge. Several ideas for future research are advanced, such as mapping hypnosis style onto the interpersonal circumplex, evaluating whether attentional-state changes measured at the end of the induction actually mediate subsequent hypnotic responsiveness, and systematically examining the impact of ritual-like aspects of inductions.

Induction Technique: Beyond Simple Response to Suggestion

The hypnotic induction is intended to induce hypnosis. This implies that what is sought is intended to go beyond what might be wrought by mere suggestion, expectancy, and social influence. The experimentally controlled research showing that the induction makes a difference and how small changes in wording of suggestions can produce orthogonal responses is briefly reviewed. This article explains the principles of induction and three critical phases of hypnotic induction in detail. An arm levitation scripted protocol demonstrating how to respond to the patient using the three phases to maximize responses to hypnotic suggestions is presented.

Effects of Positive Suggestions on the Need for Red Blood Cell Transfusion in Orthopedic Surgery

This study examined whether positive suggestions applied without a hypnotic induction in the perioperative period reduces the need for red blood cell transfusions in patients who underwent total hip or knee arthroplasties with spinal anesthesia. No hypnotic assessment was performed. Ninety-five patients were randomly assigned to the suggestion group (n = 45) and to the control group (n = 50). Patients in the suggestion group received verbal suggestions before and audiotaped suggestions during the surgery for reducing blood loss, anxiety, postoperative pain, and fast recovery. Our study showed that using positive suggestions in the perioperative period significantly decreases the necessity for transfusion.

A Comparison of Hypnotic Induction, Task Motivation, and a “Cold Start” Control Group on Hypnotizability

Groups of participants (N = 164) were randomly assigned to three conditions: Group 1 received a trance induction, Group 2 received task-motivational instructions, and Group 3—“cold start” control—was simply told, “We will begin the hypnosis procedure now.” All participants received the Creative Imagination Scale suggestions and then completed the Creative Imagination Scale and Inventory Scale of Hypnotic Depth. The three conditions did not differ significantly either on the Creative Imagination Scale or in reported hypnotic depth. These results are consistent with prior studies which show that trance induction and task-motivational yield similar results, but they are inconsistent inasmuch as the trance induction and task-motivational groups did not differ from the control group. These results, however, are predictable from socio-cognitive perspectives that the context of hypnosis itself can elicit hypnotic behaviors.

Conscious/Unconscious Dissociation Induction: Increasing Hypnotic Performance With “Resistant” Clients

Milton H. Erickson promoted several approaches to psychotherapy using hypnosis. In the last decades of his life, his work moved away from the use of redundant suggestion and a predominance of direct suggestion in favor of indirect suggestion. In addition, he frequently employed a type of storytelling (that has come to be called therapeutic metaphor) to indirectly convey learning. Another change that occurred during the last decade was his definition of the cause of a symptom. However, there were two important areas of his work that he did not change during his career. These two components of his work he did not change were his definition of a cure and the importance of a naturalistic induction. This article concerns his naturalistic approach to hypnotic induction and especially his use of conscious/unconscious dissociation in the induction process and how indirect suggestion and therapeutic binds can be used to facilitate that type of induction and a cure.

Suggestions to Reduce Clinical Fibromyalgia Pain and Experimentally Induced Pain Produce Parallel Effects on Perceived Pain but Divergent Functional MRI-Based Brain Activity.

Hypnotic suggestion is an empirically validated form of pain control; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Thirteen fibromyalgia patients received suggestions to alter their clinical pain, and 15 healthy controls received suggestions to alter experimental heat pain. Suggestions were delivered before and after hypnotic induction with blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) activity measured concurrently. Across groups, suggestion produced substantial changes in pain report (main effect of suggestion, F2, 312 = 585.8; p < .0001), with marginally larger changes after induction (main effect of induction, F1, 312 = 3.6; p = .060). In patients, BOLD response increased with pain report in regions previously associated with pain, including thalamus and anterior cingulate cortex. In controls, BOLD response decreased with pain report. All changes were greater after induction. Region-of-interest analysis revealed largely linear patient responses with increasing pain report. Control responses, however, were higher after suggestion to increase or decrease pain from baseline. Based on behavioral report alone, the mechanism of suggestion could be interpreted as largely similar regardless of the induction or type of pain experience. The functional magnetic resonance imaging data, however, demonstrated larger changes in brain activity after induction and a radically different pattern of brain activity for clinical pain compared with experimental pain. These findings imply that induction has an important effect on underlying neural activity mediating the effects of suggestion, and the mechanism of suggestion in patients altering clinical pain differs from that in controls altering experimental pain. Patient responses imply that suggestions altered pain experience via corresponding changes in pain-related brain regions, whereas control responses imply suggestion engaged cognitive control.

The “trance dance” of the Ju/’hoan Bushmen (San) of Southern Africa: implications for hypnotic means of healing

Within the perspective of the history of hypnosis, the healing dance of the Kalahari Bushmen (San) is regarded as special kind of kinetic trance that uses focused emotional intensity inside music and dance to initiate movement automatisms for healing. We demonstrate how the Bushman way of healing introduces new distinctions, metaphors, and strategies for the understanding and practice of hypnotically oriented forms of therapy. We propose that the Bushman form of trance, one that utilizes the arousal and amplification of emotions, improvised sounds, and spontaneous movement, suggests a unique form of healing trance and hypnotic induction. The Bushman dance relies less on purposeful induction through direct or indirect verbal and nonverbal suggestion and entrainment, and more on the amplification of emotion and song. These help awaken spontaneous movement that goes past choreographed dance. In short, the so-called trance dance of the Ju’/hoan Bushmen of southern Africa is primarily concerned with waking up strong positive feelings through rhythm and song, bringing forth a spontaneous vibration in the body, and sharing or passing this vibration to others. We discuss how this brings forth the experience of crossing over from the everyday reality of distinguishing, languaging mind (what the Bushmen call second creation) into the highly charged, ecstatic experience of transformation in which all of creation is experientially felt rather than named (called first creation).

Letter to the Editor: Hypnotic Induction of Experiences

Letter from Raymond C. Babb to the editor of the Journal of Near-Death Studies on the topic "Hypnotic Induction of Experiences."