Water Hygiene Research Articles

Effluents from septic systems and impact on groundwater contamination: a systematic review.

Globally, 2.2 billion people rely on groundwater for their water supply, and 2.8 billion use onsite sanitation systems for their sanitation needs. Groundwater contamination from septic systems is a critical public health concern, linked with diseases related to water sanitation and hygiene. Despite the severe impacts of septic systems on groundwater quality, comprehensive global studies remain limited. This study conducted a systematic review of articles published between 2012 and 2023 on topics related to septic systems and groundwater contamination, and 82 peer-reviewed articles met the inclusion criteria. The review identified key contaminants, including E.coli, nitrate, Enterococcus spp., total coliform, ammonium, phosphate, chlorides, and pharmaceuticals. Research on microbial indicators is more prevalent in Africa, while research on nutrients is common in North America. Research on organic contaminants including polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), pharmaceuticals, and personal care products (PCPPs) is limited, particularly in low-and middle-income countries. Critical factors contributing to groundwater contamination include soil, hydrogeological conditions, climate, septic system maintenance and functioning, and septic density. The goal of this study was to comprehensively assess the extent of groundwater contamination resulting from septic system effluents by identifying the major contaminants typically found in affected groundwater sources and exploring the factors contributing to contamination. Identifying the major contaminants and factors related to groundwater contamination from septic systems is crucial for developing effective management strategies to protect groundwater sources.

Comparison of NFHS 4 and 5 data in Tamil Nadu for diarrhoeal disease and risk factors among children under 5 years

Background: Globally, 4 billion cases of diarrhea occur every year and 88% of these can be attributed to unsafe water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene. One out of ten babies born in developing countries do not reach their fifth birthday as they die from diarrhoeal diseases. Diarrhoeal diseases remain the number one cause of child mortality in India even though it is a preventable illness. The study aims to compare the prevalence of diarrhoeal diseases and enumerate its risk factors among children aged below 5 years in different districts of Tamil Nadu from NFHS 4 and 5. Methods: This study is a secondary data analysis based on the NFHS 4 & 5 data of Tamil Nadu, which has data available in round 4 for 26,033 households and for 27,929 households in round 5. The analysis pertains to children aged below 5 years who were 7,658 in round 4 and 6,283 in round 5. Results: Overall there was a 53.8% decrease in prevalence in Tamil Nadu. Prevalence in Salem had reduced by 92.1%. Erode, Kanniyakumari and Krishnagiri achieved 84.5%, 86.6%, 89.2% reductions respectively. Nagapattinam and Virudhunagar experienced a higher number of prevalence with 7.5% and 12% increase of cases respectively. Overall Tamil Nadu 71.6% improvement in sanitation from NFHS-4. Tiruvannamalai achieved the highest improvement (96.5%), while Erode did not achieve much improvement (7.8%). Overall Tamil Nadu had 0.92% improvement in drinking water facility from NFHS-4. Nagapattinam and Perambalur have the highest improvement (6.8 and 6.5% respectively) and have achieved 100%. Ariyalur has had a 6.1% decline in quality of drinking water facility. Conclusion: Between NFHS 4 and 5, the prevalence of diarrhoeal cases among children under 5 has dropped by 53.8% and child mortality has reduced by 16.8% in Tamil Nadu. We can also see that there is an overall improvement in of 27.4% in sanitation and 0.92% in drinking water quality.

Phenolic Ecotoxins in River Water: Survey on Knowledge and Practices of Road-Side Food Vendors Operating Along River Chania Bank Fringes in Thika Sub- County, Kenya

Purpose: Phenolic ecotoxins consumed in raw surface water from river sources has been implicated in causing diseases of high burden such as cancers, in Kenya. This study was conducted in Thika Sub County, and data collected from roadside food vendors and food hawkers who operate small scale street food business along the fringes and banks of River Chania. The study’s objective was to establish the knowledge on Phenolic ecotoxins present in river water and practices of the study respondents. Methodology: A crossectional descriptive study design was used, in which combined interviews and questionnaire enquiries conducted from, n=341, small-scale road side food vendors and hawkers was analyzed. Findings: Data reveals that none of the respondents had knowledge on Phenolic ecotoxin contaminants and additionally a strongly associated correlation (P<0.001, χ222.6 and df 1), further augments the disclosure that, poor knowledge of raw river water safety and hygiene does result to body harm and ill health. Unique Contribution to Theory, Policy and Practice: There is increased need and effort to scale up the sensitization and awareness on exposure to harmful ecotoxin contaminants from the use of raw river water. Water decontamination mobile units should be considered and introduced especially in urban areas of high population density, transversed by rivers.

Hygiene water and water supply in beekeeping

The article discusses materials on the hygiene of honeybee watering, shows the importance of water for their life and health, as well as formulates the main methods of solving the problem and gives practical recommendations. In conclusion, the authors of the article conclude that in the conditions of modern intensive technologies, watering honeybees with good-quality water is one of the leading indicators of the sanitary well-being of beekeeping facilities, which is achieved by carrying out a complex of organizational, economic, veterinary and sanitary measures. The materials of the scientific article presented by the authors have theoretical and applied significance, can be used both in scientific and practical activities.

Epidemiology and clinical characteristics of acute viral gastroenteritis in 350 paediatric patients hospitalised between 2019 and 2022 in the Military Institute of Medicine – National Research Institute in Warsaw, Poland: a single-centre retrospective analysis

Introduction and objective: Acute gastroenteritis, a common childhood illness worldwide, manifests with symptoms including fever, abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhoea. It is highly contagious, with transmission occurring through contaminated water, food, or poor hygiene. Globally, 1.7 billion cases of diarrhoeal diseases are diagnosed annually, causing approximately 525,000 deaths among children under the age of five. Dehydration caused by diarrhoea is a primary cause of hospitalisation, particularly in developing countries. Aim: Analysis of the aetiology, frequency, and seasonal distribution of viral pathogens responsible for acute gastroenteritis in children hospitalised between 2019 and 2022 at the Military Institute of Medicine – National Research Institute in Warsaw, Poland. Materials and methods: Medical records of patients aged 0 to 18 diagnosed with rotavirus, norovirus, and adenovirus-induced acute gastroenteritis were analysed. The pathogens had been identified with reliable immunochromatographic tests. Exclusion criteria encompassed bacterial infections, dietary errors, and inflammatory conditions. Data examined included age, gender, aetiology of gastroenteritis, seasonality, duration of hospitalisation, and clinical symptoms (diarrhoea, vomiting, fever, abdominal pain, and dehydration). Laboratory results such as white blood cell count, C-reactive protein, electrolyte levels, and organ function markers were also evaluated. Results: Data from 350 children hospitalised between 2019 and 2022 were analysed. The highest number of hospitalisations occurred in 2019 and 2022, with fewer cases in 2020–2021, likely reflecting the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Most patients were between 6 and 12 months old. Rotavirus infection commonly presented with fever, vomiting, diarrhoea, and dehydration. Adenovirus and mixed infections were associated with slightly higher C-reactive protein levels, while rotavirus infections showed mildly elevated aspartate aminotransferase levels. Haematocrit, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, and electrolyte levels were similar across all cases. Conclusions: Our analysis showed that rotavirus was the most frequent cause of acute viral diarrhoea in children, followed by norovirus and adenovirus, with mixed infections being the least common. The peak incidence occurred in autumn and winter, except in 2021, reflecting changes in the dynamics of infections related to the coronavirus pandemic. Biochemical findings were not sufficiently characteristic to infer the aetiology of the disease.

Evaluating water, sanitation, and hygiene in schools of Bangladesh: progress toward SDG compliance

ABSTRACT The availability of safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities in schools is essential for a healthy learning environment and achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs) 4 and 6. Despite its importance, comprehensive studies on drinking water quality, sanitation, and hygiene in schools are scarce. This study explicitly assessed the WASH services and gaps in 43 educational institutions, located in Tongi, Bangladesh, through field and laboratory investigations. Thirteen physicochemical and bacteriological parameters were analyzed, and water quality was classified using an Integrated Water Quality Index (IWQI). Hygiene and sanitation were evaluated through observations and data from school administrators on water sources, toilets, handwashing facilities, and solid waste management. Results showed that WASH services exceeded the national average, but all schools had dangerously high Escherichia coli levels (mean: 43.95 CFU/100 mL) in drinking water, posing health risks. Additionally, 89.72% of samples showed elevated manganese levels, 35% had high iron, and 41.86% had increased conductivity. About 35% of water was unsuitable for drinking based on IWQI. Schools lacked the capacity to monitor WASH quality, especially drinking water. A strategic framework for safe WASH facilities is recommended. The findings can lead the policymakers to prioritize the improvements in WASH facilities for attaining SDG 6.

Performance assessment of food safety systems (FSMSs and FSC) in water bottling factories in view of their contextual characteristics

Foodborne illnesses affect 30% of people in developed nations and lead to financial difficulties in less wealthy countries. Insufficient understanding of pathogens and inadequate food safety practices in water bottling facilities impede progress. To prevent illnesses, ensuring clean water, proper sanitation, and good hand hygiene are essential in order to decrease the 829,000 annual deaths related to diarrhea. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of food safety systems in water bottling factories in view of their contextual characteristics. A study was conducted in northwestern Ethiopia at water bottling factories from January 2023 to August 2023. This study used a mixed method approach to collect and analyze data through laboratory testing, observations, interviews, questionnaires, and document analysis. The Kruskal‒Wallis H test was used to compare mean scores of context riskiness and food safety output across four clusters, while the Mann‒Whitney U test was used to compare means between certified and noncertified factories. In our study, 43% of the samples showed positive total plate count. The result also indicated the presence of potentially dangerous by-products of chlorine, trihalomethanes was found in bottled water. On average, the manufacturers operated in a moderate risk context. Inadequate food safety outcomes resulted from lower food safety management systems scores. Factories with insufficient Food Safety Management Systems often face challenges marked by safety protocol discrepancies, leading to higher risks of contamination and non-compliance with regulations. This assessment underscores the need for tailored interventions focusing on specific contextual barriers to improve food safety outcomes in the bottled water industry.

Enhanced removal of nanoplastics from freshwater using in-situ synthesized and anchored nano-Fe3O4 via two-step ferrous oxidation

Magnetic separation is a promising strategy for removing nanoplastics (NPs) from water; however, it often requires complex processeses, such as synthesizing nano-Fe3O4 magnets and attaching them to specific carriers. This study presents an innovative and efficient strategy to in-situ synthesize and anchor nano-Fe3O4 onto polystyrene (PS) NPs through a two-step oxidation of ferrous ions, which significantly enhances NPs removal via magnetic separation. The two-step process involves initial alkalization of a ferrous aqueous solution under anoxic conditions, followed by oxidation in air. In the presence of PS spheres, nano-Fe3O4 forms in-situ on the PS surfaces, promoting sedimentation under a magnetic field. Results demonstrate that two-step ferrous oxidation achieves superior removal rates, with 99.32 % for 500 nm PS spheres (PS-500) and 93.16 % for 100 nm PS spheres (PS-100) using a low Fe2+ dosage of 0.1 mM. In contrast, the conventional one-step method, which simultaneously alkalizes and oxidizes ferrous sulfate in aerobic conditions, fails to form nano-Fe3O4 and results in low removal rates of only 56.49 % for PS-500 and 8.89 % for PS-100, respectively. Furthermore, the turbidity and residual Fe can be reduced to below 1 NTU and 0.1 mg/L by using two-step process, respectively, meeting drinking water safety and hygiene standards. This approach not only simplifies the magnetic nanomaterial preparation process but also substantially improves the NP removal efficiency, offering a promising solution for enhanced water treatment technologies and safer drinking water.

Dengue outbreaks in northern Nigeria: Evaluating the recommended Takeda vaccine and future prevention strategies.

Dengue fever, caused by the dengue virus (DENV), poses a significant public health challenge globally, with Nigeria experiencing sporadic outbreaks. A clear understanding of the dengue burden has not been achieved in Nigeria, just as in other African countries. Understanding the epidemiology and burden of dengue fever is essential for effective prevention and control strategies. This paper examines the recent dengue outbreaks in northern Nigeria, particularly in Sokoto state, and evaluates the recommended Takeda dengue vaccine (TDV) along with future prevention strategies. Despite limited surveillance and underreporting, dengue fever is endemic in Nigeria (with over 5 million cases and 5000 dengue-related deaths in 2023), with recent outbreaks indicating a growing concern. The TDV, a live attenuated tetravalent vaccine, has shown promise in preventing dengue fever, but challenges such as vaccine acceptance and accessibility need to be addressed. Global urbanization contributes to the disease's spread, which is influenced by factors such as population density, cultural beliefs, water storage practices, hygiene, and water supply accessibility. Future prevention strategies must focus on government intervention, community practices, and innovative vector control measures to mitigate the spread of DENV in Nigeria. This study will serve as a valuable reference for policymakers, researchers, and clinicians in the management and control of DENV in Nigeria and Africa as a whole.

Post-war status of water supply, sanitation, hygiene and related reported diseases in Tigray, Ethiopia: A community-based cross-sectional study

Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) associated diseases remain a global public health issue and linked with Sustainable Development Goal 6. In November 2020, a war broke out in Tigray, Ethiopia, resulting in a negative health consequence. The post war status of WASH and its associated diseases are not documented. The aim of this study was to assess the status of drinking water, sanitation and hygiene practices and the prevalence of WASH-associated diseases in Tigray, Ethiopia following the war. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in 24 randomly selected accessible districts of Tigray, Ethiopia. A standardized questionnaire was used to collect data from households in the study. Data was collected from 2338 households. Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression were used to analyze the data. The average age of respondents was 28.7 years (SD = 6.2). The majority of respondents 2030 (86.8%) were married and 1698 (72.6%) were rural residents. Nearly one third of the respondents were uneducated and around 40% have either radio or TV as means of communication. More than half (55.2%) of the respondents had a family size of over 5.A quarter (25%, 95% CI: 23.3, 26.8) of study participants had access to a basic water supply. Less than a tenth (7.7%, 95% CI: 6.6, 8.8) of households had access to basic sanitation. Basic hand washing was available in 2% of households. Malaria, diarrhoea, skin infection and eye infection were the common reported disease in the community. Marital status, family size, place of residence and liquid waste management were the most important predictors of reported diseases.Access to basic water, sanitation and hygiene services was low, and the prevalence of malaria, diarrhoea and skin infections was higher. There were differences in WASH services and reported diseases according to zone and place of residence (urban-rural). Post war, improved access to basic water, sanitation and hygiene services is recommended to prevent WASH-associated diseases in Tigray, Ethiopia. Furthermore, the prevention oriented policy of the country needs better implementation to reduce preventable diseases and ensure better health status in the community.

Role of Psychosocial Factors and Mental Well-Being for Baby WASH- and Nutrition-Related Behaviors in Lao PDR.

In Lao PDR, 30% of children under age 5 years are affected by stunting. Stunting in childhood is associated with poorer outcomes for both physical and cognitive development. Baby WASH is a focused approach to water supply, sanitation, and hygiene for infants and children that targets numerous contextual and psychosocial factors including child handwashing, food hygiene, clean play spaces, and management of animal feces in the household environment. Using the risks, attitudes, norms, abilities, and self-regulation approach to behavior change (BC), the objective of this study was to investigate psychosocial factors of Baby WASH and nutrition related-behaviors, considering caregivers mental well-being, to design evidence-based BC interventions. A cross-sectional survey of 616 caregivers of a child under 2 years was conducted in Lao PDR. Caregivers well-being was significantly associated with handwashing before feeding a baby, controlling "mouthing," and the intention to exclusively breastfeed for the first 6 months. All psychosocial factors of the three behaviors were correlated with mental well-being. Results suggest that attitudinal and ability factors underlying handwashing with soap before feeding a child should be the primary focus of BC interventions. For controlling mouthing factors, interventions should target attitude and norm factors. To increase the intention of exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months attitude, ability, and self-regulation factors should be targeted through BC interventions. The findings of this study can be used to support the inclusion of vulnerable caregivers with poor mental well-being with BC interventions designed to improve child health and prevent stunting.

Investigation on the Distribution of Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria In Dry Fish of Chalan Beel Area From Northwestern Part of Bangladesh

Dried fish, a valuable animal protein source, may pose health risks due to microbial contamination influenced by water quality, hygiene practices, handling, packaging, and transportation. This research focuses on conducting an in-depth analysis of the occurrence and antibiotic resistance patterns of bacteria, identified through 16S rRNA sequencing, in different dried fish varieties obtained from the Chalan beel area in Northwestern Bangladesh. For the purpose of this study, homogenization of collected samples was carried out and resulting homogenates were refrigerated at a temperature of -20°C. Then the samples were subjected to a series of 10-fold dilutions and spread over 1.5% nutrient agar supplemented with Tetracycline. Thereafter, plates were incubated at 37°C for a duration of 24 hours to form bacterial colonies. Twelve aseptically collected dried fish samples had a total viable count ranging from 2.0 × 10² to 6.5 × 10⁵ CFU/ml, with tetracycline influence at 32 µg/ml (7 × 10² to 5.4 × 10³ CFU/ml) and 64 µg/ml (3.0 × 10² to 2.1 × 10³ CFU/ml). Notably, Tengra fish (Mystus sp.) exhibited the highest viable count 6.5 × 105 CFU/ml (Control), while Darikana (Esomus danricus), Chela (Salmostoma phulo), Moa (Amblypharyngodon mola), and Guchi (Mastacembelus pancalus) fish showed the lowest count (3.0 × 10² CFU/ml) at a Tetracycline concentration of 64 µg/ml. Moreover, microbial analysis using 16S rRNA gene sequencing identified twelve unique bacteria belong to genera. The most prevalent genus appears to be Enterobacter, identified by 6 strains. These include Enterobacter hormaechei strains UCHE20, RB13, AUH-ENM30 and 20710, Enterobacter ludwigii strain JCR-38 and Enterobacter sp. M3. Other identified genera included Klebsiella (with Klebsiella variicola and Klebsiella pneumoniae), Proteus (Proteus mirabilis), Macrococcus (Macrococcus caseolyticus), Acinetobacter (Acinetobacter johnsonii), and Bacillus (Bacillus sp.). This study provides valuable insights into the complex microbial dynamics in dried fish, emphasizing the need for enhanced food safety and public health measures. J. Bio-Sci. 32(2): 61-69, 2024

The Relation of Infectious Diseases, Water Access, Hygiene Practice, and Sanitation with the Stunting: A Case-Control Study in Sambas Regency

Background: The main nutritional problem concerned by the Indonesian government is the stunting. This condition is affected by various aspects, mainly caused by infectious diseases, clean and unharmonious living behavior, the availability of drinking water, and environmental sanitation. Objectives: The purpose of this study is to determine the relation of infectious diseases, water access, hygiene practices, and sanitation towards the stunting incidence factors in Sambas Regency. Methods: This research used Ex Post Facto with a case-control design. The study population was residents of Sambas Regency with a total of 535,725 people, a total sample of 241 children aged 0-59 months comprising of 89 respondents as cases and the rest 159 respondents as controls, using inclusion and exclusion criteria both from the control group and from the case group. Data analysis used the chi-square test. Results: The results showed a relation of infectious diseases (p-value=0.000), drinking water sources (p-value=0.000), clean and healthy living behavior (p-value=0.000), and environmental conditions (p-value=0.000) with the stunting incidences. Conclusions: The study concludes that there is a significant relation of infectious disease variables, the drinking water sources, hygiene practices, and environmental conditions with the stunting. It requires control and completion of the stunting cases through environmental sanitation improvement, namely the provision of access to clean water, healthy and clean living behaviors, and good cooperation between the government and the community, in educating people through counseling and socialization of the stunting prevention and management.

Analyzing child health and water, sanitation, hygiene facilities in Punjab, Pakistan: A multilevel and spatial approach

AbstractThe health and well‐being of children can be achieved through access to clean water, proper sanitation, and hygiene practices. The current study investigates the effect of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) on health outcomes using the multiple indicator cluster surveys (MICS) data. The household‐level and district‐level determinants of child health are analyzed using logistic regression models and multilevel logistic regression models. The results indicate that there are significant relationships between water availability, sanitation facilities, hygiene practices, and health outcomes. Access to clean water, an increase in sanitation facilities, and proper hygiene have a significant positive relationship with child health. Better access to clean water enhances children's well‐being. The level of parental education, household head dynamics, and WASH indicators at the district level also have a significant relationship with child health. The bivariate Local Moran's I analysis of child health and WASH facilities shows positive spatial autocorrelation (0.441). It also identifies the districts with significant high–high and low–low clustering patterns. This study contributes to achieving SDGs 3 and 6 to develop policies, programs, and future‐based solutions to promote the health and well‐being of children in Punjab and other similar areas.

Do school Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene facilities affect students' health status, attendance, and educational achievements? A qualitative study in Nepal.

Access to safe and sufficient drinking Water, Sanitation, and good Hygiene (WASH) facilities in schools play a crucial role in preventing students from numerous Neglected Tropical Diseases, improving the learning environment in schools, and creating resilient communities living in a healthy environment. This study aims to explore the impact of combining WASH facilities on students' health status, school attendance, and educational achievements. Four schools, two with improved and two without improved WASH facilities, were selected purposively from Dhanusha and Chitwan districts of Nepal. A total of 24 participants, 16 students, and eight teachers were also purposively selected based on the Theory of Data Saturation. The participants were interviewed face-to-face using study guidelines; Key Informants Interview for teachers and In-depth Interview for students. The data were audio recorded and analyzed thematically using Dedoose 9.0.17 qualitative data management and analysis software. School WASH facilities have a significant impact on students' health and well-being. Poor school-WASH facilities hindered students' school attendance, particularly for menstruating girls. School without separate toilets for girls, including menstruation hygiene facilities, lack of water and soap, sanitary pad, and secure toilet's door often have higher rates of absenteeism among girls. Poor teacher and students' relationships, students' low interest in education, household chores, and participation in social customs also contribute to students' absence from school and low educational performance. It is important to note that inadequate WASH facilities affect not only students, but also teachers in the same school. The lack of safe and sufficient drinking water, unimproved sanitation, and poor hygiene facilities were seen by students and teachers as reducing their health and well-being, school attendance, and academic performance. Thus, schools need prioritize and promote the provision of improved WASH facilities for the betterment of students' health, attendance, and educational proficiency.

Assessment of water, sanitation and hand hygiene practices in rural households of Tamil Nadu: A cross-sectional study.

Water is a basic human right essential to all for sustainable development. Sanitation is one of the determinants of quality of life and the human development index. Drinking unsafe water impairs health through illnesses such as diarrhoea, and untreated excreta contaminates ground waters and surface waters used for drinking, bathing and household purposes. To assess the existing facilities and practices related to drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene among household members in the rural population of Tamil Nadu and to assess whether accessibility and availability of safe drinking water and adequate sanitation under sustainable development goal 6 is being achieved in the rural population of Tamil Nadu. This community-based cross-sectional study was carried out among 200 households in the rural field practice area of the Medical College and Hospital, Thiruvallur district, Tamil Nadu. The participants were interviewed using a predesigned semi-structured questionnaire on their existing water, sanitation, and hand washing facilities and practices. Our study observed that 71.5% of households had piped water supply into their dwellings, 82% were using sanitary latrines and 28% had closed drainage for draining wastewater. Twenty-eight percent were using soap and water for hand-washing before food, and 82.5% were doing hand-washing with soap after using the toilet. In our study, the association between sanitary practices and education, occupation and socioeconomic status was statistically significant. Our study emphasized the need for strengthening health education and behaviour change communication regarding sanitation and hand hygiene practices.

Expanding access to water quality monitoring with the open-source WaterScope testing platform

Increasing access to water quality tests in low-income communities is a crucial strategy toward achieving global water equality. Recent studies in the Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) sector underscore the importance of addressing practical concerns in water testing, such as robustness and results communication. In response, we present the WaterScope testing kit; an open-source, validated platform for drinking water quality assessment. It modernises the testing process with the inclusion of a unique cartridge/slider mechanism, machine-learning-enhanced classification and full digitalisation of results. WaterScope’s equivalency to conventional methods for quantifying E. coli is established through extensive validation experiments in both laboratory and field environments. This versatile platform provides potential to expand its applications to test other bacteria, perform colorimetric assays, and analyse clinical samples such as blood/urine samples. We anticipate that the system’s ease-of-use, portability, affordability, robustness, and digital nature will accelerate progress toward global water equality.

Understanding impact of urban sprawl over sanitation risks using GIS‐based multicriteria decision‐making approach

AbstractUrban sprawl and the shortage of proper sanitary infrastructures significantly jeopardize public health and urban sustainability. The problem is further aggravated as a result of the rapid urbanization and urban sprawl. This study investigated the relationship between urban sprawl and sanitation risk conditions in a rapidly growing city in India. This was accomplished by investigating changes in urban sprawl areas between the periods 2000–2020 using multispectral satellite images and Shanon's entropy model and studying the pattern of spatial variations in basic sanitation services derived from the 100 household‐based surveyed WASH (water availability, sanitation, and hygiene) data collected in 2018 before COVID‐19 from 45 sprawl regions. Spatial statistical techniques, namely, the inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation and the multicriteria decision technique, were employed for neighborhood analysis and assessing sanitation risks inside the sprawl region. Results showed that Raipur exhibited urban sprawl and around 93.68% of the sprawl area was classified between high (6.47%)‐ and medium (80.52%)‐risk zones.

Effectiveness of climate resilient water safety plans in Nepal

ABSTRACT Water supply schemes (WSSs) in Nepal are managed by water user committees with basic knowledge of climate change. The Government of Nepal has committed and prioritized improving the quality of water services by implementing climate-resilient water safety plans (CR-WSPs) in 10 WSSs. In this study, how tough water sanitation and hygiene (HTIW) framework was adopted to assess the effectiveness of these CR-WSPs, which include four groundwater and six protected springs-based WSSs. Employing the HTIW framework, this study adopted the six key indicators environment, infrastructure, management, community governance and engagement, institutional support, and supply chains to evaluate CR-WSPs effectiveness. The indicators were then assessed using a Likert scale. Resilient schemes are needed to demonstrate a capacity to respond effectively to challenges such as unforeseen extreme events and potential hazards, together with an aptitude for financial management, laboratory maintenance, and social inclusion. Less resilient schemes tend to be those linked to social inclusion or financial issues. Institutional support and supply chain domain scored four and were relatively strong among them. The findings of this study suggest that CR-WSPs can be an important metric tool to assess climate resilience and guide policymakers in low- and middle-income countries.

Prescribing hepatitis A vaccines in the UK

Hepatitis A is a liver infection caused by a virus that is spread by eating or drinking contaminated food and water or from direct contact (including some types of sexual contact) with an infected person. Hepatitis A virus infection causes liver inflammation that usually results in a mild illness. More rarely, severe symptoms with the potential to develop into liver failure can occur. UK health professionals involved in prescribing hepatitis A vaccines should make sure they are familiar with appropriate vaccine guidance and use current UK hepatitis A vaccine recommendations for international travel as part of their risk assessment. Although most people respond well to the hepatitis A vaccine, the importance of food and water hygiene should still be emphasised to all UK travellers visiting hepatitis A endemic areas.