Hydroxamate Transport Research Articles

Functional Proteomics Analysis of Norfloxacin-Resistant Edwardsiella tarda.

Multidrug-resistant Edwardsiella tarda threatens both sustainable aquaculture and human health, but the control measure is still lacking. In this study, we adopted functional proteomics to investigate the molecular mechanism underlying norfloxacin (NOR) resistance in E. tarda. We found that E. tarda had a global proteomic shift upon acquisition of NOR resistance, featured with increased expression of siderophore biosynthesis and Fe3+-hydroxamate transport. Thus, either inhibition of siderophore biosynthesis with salicyl-AMS or treatment with another antibiotic, kitasamycin (Kit), which was uptake through Fe3+-hydroxamate transport, enhanced NOR killing of NOR-resistant E. tarda both in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, the combination of NOR, salicyl-AMS, and Kit had the highest efficacy in promoting the killing effects of NOR than any drug alone. Such synergistic effect not only confirmed in vitro and in vivo bacterial killing assays but also applicable to other clinic E. tarda isolates. Thus, our data suggest a proteomic-based approach to identify potential targets to enhance antibiotic killing and propose an alternative way to control infection of multidrug-resistant E. tarda.

Albomycin is an effective antibiotic, as exemplified with Yersinia enterocolitica and Streptococcus pneumoniae

Albomycin belongs to the class of sideromycins, compounds composed of iron carriers linked to antibiotic moieties. Albomycin was found to be active against bacteria that have a functional ferric hydroxamate transport system meaning that bacteria will actively transport albomycin until they die. We examined the activity spectrum of albomycin for bacterial pathogens and found that Enterobacteriaceae except species of Proteus and Morganella were sensitive. Resistance in the two genera was due to the lack of the ferric hydroxamate transport system. Among Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae were highly sensitive, whereas Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Staphylococcus epidermidis were resistant. The in vivo efficacy of albomycin was examined in mice infected with S. pneumoniae or Yersinia enterocolitica. A single dose of 10 mg albomycin/kg body weight reduced the colony-forming units of Y. enterocolitica by three to four orders of magnitude. A single dose of 1 mg albomycin/kg body weight was sufficient to clear S. pneumoniae infections in mice. In direct competition experiments with wild-type S. pneumoniae and its albomycin-resistant mutant, the recovery rate of the mutant was lower than for the wild-type indicating that the mutant had reduced fitness in the mouse model. We conclude that albomycin is effective in clearing infections caused by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria in a mouse model. Albomycin treatment reduces the bacterial load allowing the immune system to remove residual albomycin-resistant bacteria, and as such would make albomycin-based antibiotics an adjunct to treatment. The ferrichrome transport system serves as a Trojan horse to get albomycin into bacteria.

FhuD1, a Ferric Hydroxamate-binding Lipoprotein in Staphylococcus aureus: A CASE OF GENE DUPLICATION AND LATERAL TRANSFER

Staphylococcus aureus can utilize ferric hydroxamates as a source of iron under iron-restricted growth conditions. Proteins involved in this transport process are: FhuCBG, which encodes a traffic ATPase; FhuD2, a post-translationally modified lipoprotein that acts as a high affinity receptor at the cytoplasmic membrane for the efficient capture of ferric hydroxamates; and FhuD1, a protein with similarity to FhuD2. Gene duplication likely gave rise to fhuD1 and fhuD2. While the genomic locations of fhuCBG and fhuD2 in S. aureus strains are conserved, both the presence and the location of fhuD1 are variable. The apparent redundancy of FhuD1 led us to examine the role of this protein. We demonstrate that FhuD1 is expressed only under conditions of iron limitation through the regulatory activity of Fur. FhuD1 fractions with the cell membrane and binds hydroxamate siderophores but with lower affinity than FhuD2. Using small angle x-ray scattering, the solution structure of FhuD1 resembles that of FhuD2, and only a small conformational change is associated with ferrichrome binding. FhuD1, therefore, appears to be a receptor for ferric hydroxamates, like FhuD2. Our data to date suggest, however, that FhuD1 is redundant to FhuD2 and plays a minor role in hydroxamate transport. However, given the very real possibility that we have not yet identified the proper conditions where FhuD1 does provide an advantage over FhuD2, we anticipate that FhuD1 serves an enhanced role in the transport of untested hydroxamate siderophores and that it may play a prominent role during the growth of S. aureus in its natural environments.

The Role of FhuD2 in Iron(III)-Hydroxamate Transport in Staphylococcus aureus: DEMONSTRATION THAT FhuD2 BINDS IRON(III)-HYDROXAMATES BUT WITH MINIMAL CONFORMATIONAL CHANGE AND IMPLICATION OF MUTATIONS ON TRANSPORT

The fhuD2 gene encodes a lipoprotein that has previously been shown to be important for the utilization of iron(III)-hydroxamates by Staphylococcus aureus. We have studied the function of the FhuD2 protein in greater detail, and demonstrate here that the protein binds several iron(III)-hydroxamates. Mutagenesis of FhuD2 identified several residues that were important for the ability of the protein to function in iron(III)-hydroxamate transport. Several residues, notably Tyr-191, Trp-197, and Glu-202, were found to be critical for ligand binding. Moreover, mutation of two highly conserved glutamate residues, Glu-97 and Glu-231, had no affect on ligand binding, but did impair iron(III)-hydroxamate transport. Interestingly, the transport defect was not equivalent for all iron(III)-hydroxamates. We modeled FhuD2 against the high resolution structures of Escherichia coli FhuD and BtuF, two structurally related proteins, and showed that the three proteins share a similar overall structure. FhuD2 Glu-97 and Glu-231 were positioned on the surface of the N and C domains, respectively. Characterization of E97A, E231A, or E97A/E231A mutants suggests that these residues, along with the ligand itself, play a cumulative role in recognition by the ABC transporter FhuBGC2. In addition, small angle x-ray scattering was used to demonstrate that, in solution, FhuD2 does not undergo a detectable change in conformation upon binding iron(III)-hydroxamates. Therefore, the mechanism of binding and transport of ligands for binding proteins within this family is significantly different from that of other well studied binding protein families, such as that represented by maltose-binding protein.

Heterobactins: A new class of siderophores from Rhodococcus erythropolis IGTS8 containing both hydroxamate and catecholate donor groups.

We report here on a new class of siderophores isolated from Rhodococcus erythropolis IGTS8, the first structurally characterized from any species of Rhodococcus and for which we suggest the name heterobactins. These siderophores consist of a tripeptide of sequence (N-OH)-L-Orn-Gly-D-Orn-(delta-N-dihydroyxbenzoate). The alpha amino group of the D-Orn is derivatized either as a 2-hydroxybenzoxazolate in heterobactin A or remains free in heterobactin B. The structures were determined by a combination of amino acid analysis, mass spectrometry and NMR methods. The two new compounds are true siderophores in that they relieve iron limited growth in the producing strain. The heterobactins are also transported by other non-producing bacteria. Growth promotion tests using various transport mutants revealed that in E. coli heterobactin A is only recognized by the catecholate receptor Cir while heterobactin B is taken up in both E.coli and A. flavescens JG9 via a hydroxamate transport system.

Molecular interactions in ribose transport: the binding protein module symmetrically associates with the homodimeric membrane transporter.

The Escherichia coli high-affinity ribose transporter is composed of the periplasmic ribose-binding protein (RBP or RbsB), the membrane component (RbsC) and the ATP-binding protein (RbsA). In order to dissect the molecular interactions initiating the transport process, RbsC suppressors for transport-defective rbsB mutations were isolated. These suppressors are localized in two regions of RbsC, which are allele-specific to N- or C-terminal domain mutations of RBP, suggesting that there are two distinct regions of RbsC, each interacting with one of the two domains of RBP. To demonstrate that these two regions provide a homodimeric binding surface for RBP we constructed a dimeric rbsC in which two genes are joined tandemly from head to tail with the addition of a linker. The dimeric RbsC protein is stable and functional in growth and ribose uptake. By exploiting the allele specificity between the domain-specific mutations and their suppressors, we generated all mutation-suppressor combinations in a single rbsB plus the dimeric rbsC genes. Their phenotypes are consistent with the proposal that the binding protein module interacts symmetrically with homodimeric RbsC. The mode of association proposed here for the ribose transport components could be extended to other ABC transporters with similar structural organizations.

ATP-dependent ferric hydroxamate transport system in Escherichia coli: periplasmic FhuD interacts with a periplasmic and with a transmembrane/cytoplasmic region of the integral membrane protein FhuB, as revealed by competitive peptide mapping.

The Escherichia coli iron transport system via ferrichrome belongs to the group of ATP-dependent transporters that are widely distributed in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Transport across the cytoplasmic membrane is mediated by three proteins: FhuD in the periplasm, FhuB in the cytoplasmic membrane and FhuC (ATPase) associated with the inside of the cytoplasmic membrane. Interaction of FhuD with FhuB was studied in vitro with biotinylated synthetic 10 residue and 20-24 residue peptides of FhuB by determining the activity of beta-galactosidase linked to the peptides via streptavidin. Peptides identical in sequence to only one of the four periplasmic loops (loop 2), predicted by a transmembrane model of FhuB, and peptides representing a transmembrane segment and part of the adjacent cytoplasmic loop 7 of FhuB bound to FhuD. Decapeptides were transferred into the periplasm of cells through a FhuA deletion derivative that forms permanently open channels three times as large as the porins in the outer membrane. FhuB peptides that bound to FhuD inhibited ferrichrome transport, while peptides that did not bind to FhuD did not affect transport. These data led us to propose that the periplasmic FhuD interacts with a transmembrane region and the cytoplasmic segment 7 of FhuB. The transmembrane region may be part of a pore through which a portion of FhuD inserts into the cytoplasmic membrane during transport. The cytoplasmic segment 7 of FhuB contains the conserved amino acid sequence EAA...G (in FhuB DTA ...G) found in ABC transporters, which is predicted to interact with the cytoplasmic FhuC ATPase. Triggering of ATP hydrolysis by substrate-loaded FhuD may occur by physical interaction between FhuD and FhuC, which bind close to each other on loop 7. Although FhuB consists of two homologous halves, FhuB(N) and FhuB(C), the sites identified for FhuD-mediated ferrichrome transport are asymmetrically arranged.

Conserved amino acids in the N‐ and C‐terminal domains of integral membrane transporter FhuB define sites important for intra‐ and intermolecular interactions

Transport of iron(III) hydroxamates across the inner membrane of Escherichia coli is mediated by a peri-plasmic binding protein-dependent transport (PBT) mechanism. FhuB, the integral membrane component of the system, is composed of covalently linked halves (FhuB[N] and FhuB[C]) which still function when present as two distinct polypeptide chains. Our analysis of two uptake-deficient FhuB derivatives provides evidence for a mechanistically novel type of functional complementation: 'domain displacement' in the cyto-plasmic membrane. Amino acid residues 60 and 426 in the FhuB polypeptide chain may define key positions that are important for FhuB[N]-FhuB[C] interaction. Furthermore, FhuB derivatives, altered in either one of their conserved regions--typical of PBT related integral membrane proteins--displayed a dominant negative effect on ferric hydroxamate transport. The experimental data suggest that the two functionally equivalent conserved regions in FhuB[N] and FhuB[C] are primarily involved in the interaction with another component of the transport system, probably FhuC.

Ferrichrome transport in Escherichia coli K-12: altered substrate specificity of mutated periplasmic FhuD and interaction of FhuD with the integral membrane protein FhuB.

FhuD is the periplasmic binding protein of the ferric hydroxamate transport system of Escherichia coli. FhuD was isolated and purified as a His-tag-labeled derivative on a Ni-chelate resin. The dissociation constants for ferric hydroxamates were estimated from the concentration-dependent decrease in the intrinsic fluorescence intensity of His-tag-FhuD and were found to be 0.4 microM for ferric aerobactin, 1.0 microM for ferrichrome, 0.3 microM for ferric coprogen, and 5.4 microM for the antibiotic albomycin. Ferrichrome A, ferrioxamine B, and ferrioxamine E, which are poorly taken up via the Fhu system, displayed dissociation constants of 79, 36, and 42 microM, respectively. These are the first estimated dissociation constants reported for a binding protein of a microbial iron transport system. Mutants impaired in the interaction of ferric hydroxamates with FhuD were isolated. One mutated FhuD, with a W-to-L mutation at position 68 [FhuD(W68L)], differed from wild-type FhuD in transport activity in that ferric coprogen supported promotion of growth of the mutant on iron-limited medium, while ferrichrome was nearly inactive. The dissociation constants of ferric hydroxamates were higher for FhuD(W68L) than for wild-type FhuD and lower for ferric coprogen (2.2 microM) than for ferrichrome (156 microM). Another mutated FhuD, FhuD(A150S, P175L), showed a weak response to ferrichrome and albomycin and exhibited dissociation constants two- to threefold higher than that of wild-type FhuD. Interaction of FhuD with the cytoplasmic membrane transport protein FhuB was studied by determining protection of FhuB degradation by trypsin and proteinase K and by cross-linking experiments. His-tag-FhuD and His-tag-FhuD loaded with aerobactin specifically prevented degradation of FhuB and were cross-linked to FhuB. FhuD loaded with substrate and also FhuD free of substrate were able to interact with FhuB.

Iron(III) hydroxamate transport in Escherichia coli K-12: FhuB-mediated membrane association of the FhuC protein and negative complementation of fhuC mutants.

Iron(III) hydroxamate transport across the cytoplasmic membrane is catalyzed by the very hydrophobic FhuB protein and the membrane-associated FhuC protein, which contains typical ATP-binding domains. Interaction between the two proteins was demonstrated by immunoelectron microscopy with anti-FhuC antibodies, which showed FhuB-mediated association of FhuC with the cytoplasmic membrane. In addition, inactive FhuC derivatives carrying single amino acid replacements in the ATP-binding domains suppressed wild-type FhuC transport activity, which arose either from displacement of active FhuC from FhuB by the mutated FhuC derivatives or from the formation of mixed inactive FhuC multimers between wild-type and mutated FhuC proteins. Inactive FhuC derivatives containing internal deletions and insertions showed no phenotypic suppression, indicating conformational alterations that rendered the FhuC derivatives unable to displace wild-type FhuC. It is concluded that the physical interaction between FhuC and FhuB implies a coordinate activity of both proteins in the transport of iron(III) hydroxamates through the cytoplasmic membrane.

Point mutations in two conserved glycine residues within the integral membrane protein FhuB affect iron(III) hydroxamate transport.

A region of substantial homology, comprising 32 amino acids around a highly conserved glycine residue, is located near the C-terminal ends of the hydrophobic Fhu, Fec, Fep, Fat, and Btu transport proteins involved in the uptake of ferrisiderophores and vitamin B12 into Escherichia coli and Vibrio anguillarum. Furthermore, a region similar in location and sequence containing an invariant glycine at an equivalent position was identified in the hydrophobic component of all other periplasmic binding protein-dependent (PBT) systems. In the FhuB protein, which is twice the size of the other PBT-related inner membrane proteins and which displays an internal homology, two conserved glycine residues are present. Alteration of Gly at positions 226 and 559 to Ala, Val, or Glu reduced iron(III) hydroxamate uptake, suggesting that this homologous region may play a general role in the mechanism of PBT-dependent transport.

Iron(III) hydroxamate transport across the cytoplasmic membrane ofEscherichia coli

Transport of iron(III) hydroxamates across the inner membrane into the cytoplasm of Escherichia coli is mediated by the FhuC, FhuD and FhuB proteins and displays characteristics typical of a periplasmic-binding-protein-dependent transport mechanism. In contrast to the highly specific receptor proteins in the outer membrane, at least six different siderophores of the hydroxamate type and the antibiotic albomycin are accepted as substrates. A fhuB mutant (deficient in transport of substrates across the inner membrane) which overproduced the periplasmic FhuD 30-kDa protein, bound [55Fe] iron(III) ferrichrome. Resistance of FhuD to proteinase K in the presence of ferrichrome, aerobactin, and coprogen indicated binding of these substrates to FhuD. FhuD displays significant similarity to the periplasmic FecB, FepB, and BtuE proteins. The extremely hydrophobic FhuB 70-kDa protein is located in the cytoplasmic membrane and consists of two apparently duplicated halves. The N- and C-terminal halves [FhuB(N) and FhuB(C)] were expressed separately in fhuB mutants. Only combinations of FhuB(N) and FhuB(C) polypeptides restored sensitivity to albomycin and growth on iron hydroxamate as a sole iron source, indicating that both halves of FhuB were essential for substrate translocation and that they combined to form an active permease. In addition, a FhuB derivative with a large internal duplication of 271 amino acids was found to be transport-active, indicating that the extra portion did not disturb proper insertion of the active FhuB segments into the cytoplasmic membrane. A region of considerable similarity, present twice in FhuB, was identified near the C-terminus of 20 analyzed hydrophobic proteins of periplasmic-binding-protein-dependent systems.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Iron (III) hydroxamate transport into Escherichia coli. Substrate binding to the periplasmic FhuD protein.

Due to its extreme insolubility, Fe3+ is not transported as a monoatomic ion. In microbes, iron is bound to low molecular weight carriers, designated siderophores. For uptake into cells of Escherichia coli Fe3+ siderophores have to be translocated across two membranes. Transport across the outer membrane is receptor-dependent and energy-coupled; transport across the cytoplasmic membrane seems to follow a periplasmic binding protein-dependent transport mechanism. In support of this notion we demonstrate specific binding of the Fe3+ hydroxamate compounds ferrichrome, aerobactin, and coprogen, which are transported via the Fhu system, to the periplasmic FhuD protein, and no binding of the transport inactive ferrichrome A, ferric citrate, and iron sulfate. About 10(4) ferrichrome molecules were bound to the FhuD protein of cells which overproduced plasmid-encoded FhuD. Binding depended on transport across the outer membrane mediated by the FhuA receptor and the TonB protein. Binding to FhuD was supported by the exclusive resistance of FhuD to proteinase K in the presence of the transport active hydroxamates. The overproduced precursor form of the FhuD protein was not protected by the Fe3+ hydroxamates indicating a conformation different to the mature form. The FhuD protein apparently serves as a periplasmic carrier for Fe3+ hydroxamates with widely different structures.

Iron(III) hydroxamate transport of Escherichia coli: Restoration of iron supply by coexpression of the N- and C-terminal halves of the cytoplasmic membrane protein FhuB cloned on separate plasmids

Transport of iron(III) hydroxamates across the inner membrane into the cytoplasm of Escherichia coli cells is mediated by the FhuC, FhuD and FhuB proteins. We studied the extremely hydrophobic FhuB protein (70 kDa) which is located in the cytoplasmic membrane. The N- and C-terminal halves of the protein [FhuB(N) and FhuB(C)] show homology to each other and to the equivalent polypeptides involved in uptake of ferric dicitrate and of vitamin B12. Various plasmids carrying only one-half of the fhuB gene were expressed in fhuB- mutants. Only combinations of FhuB(N) and FhuB(C) polypeptides restored sensitivity to albomycin and growth on iron hydroxamates as sole iron source; no activity was obtained with either half of FhuB alone. These results indicate that both halves of FhuB are essential for substrate translocation and that they combine to form an active permease when expressed separately. In addition, a FhuB derivative with a large internal duplication of 271 amino acids was found to be partially active in transport, indicating that the extra portion did not perurb proper insertion of the active FhuB segments into the cytoplasmic membrane.

Iron(III)hydroxamate transport of Escherichia coli K12: Single amino acid replacements at potential ATP-binding sites inactivate the FhuC protein

The mechanism of iron(III)hydroxamate transport appears to be of the periplasmic binding protein dependent transport (PBT) kind which is energized by ATP hydrolysis. The FhuC protein contains two domains typical of ATP-binding proteins. Lysine in domain I was replaced by glutamine and glutamate, and aspartate in domain II by asparagine and glutamate, resulting in FhuC derivatives which no longer transported ferrichrome and albomycin. FhuC inactivation by the aspartate-glutamate substitution is especially noteworthy since the negative charge thought to be involved in Mg2(+)-ATP binding remains the same and the two amino acid side chains differ in only a CH2 group. It is concluded that the two domains that represent consensus sequences among all peripheral cytoplasmic membrane proteins of PBT systems are involved in substrate transport.

Nucleotide sequence of the fhuC and fhuD genes involved in iron (III) hydroxamate transport: Domains in FhuC homologous to ATP-binding proteins

The transport of Fe3+ into cells of Escherichia coli occurs via siderophores and the uptake through the outer membrane of three Fe3+-siderophore compounds containing hydroxamate residues requires three specific receptor proteins. In contrast, transport through the cytoplasmic membrane is catalysed by three common proteins encoded by the fhuB, fhuC and fhuD genes. The nucleotide sequence of a DNA fragment containing the fhuC and fhuD genes has been determined: the open reading frame of fhuC contains 795 nucleotides which encode a polypeptide with a molecular weight of 29,255 and the largest open reading frame of the fhuD region comprises 888 nucleotides. However, we propose that translation of fhuD initiates at the fourth potential start codon resulting in a polypeptide with a molecular weight of 28,282. Both proteins are moderately nonpolar and membrane-bound. They lack obvious signal sequences. Segments of the FhuC protein display strong homology to ATP-binding proteins, suggesting a function in Fe3+ uptake similar to the ATP-binding proteins of transport systems that depend on periplasmic proteins. This study completes the nucleotide sequence of the fhu operon which consists of the four genes fhuA fhuC fhuD fhuB arranged in this order on the E. coli chromosome and transcribed from fhuA to fhuB.

Iron hydroxamate transport of Escherichia coli: Nucleotide sequence of the fhuB gene and identification of the protein

The genes fhuA, fhuC and fhuD encode products involved in the transport of ferrichrome into cells of Escherichia coli. The nucleotide sequence of an additional locus contiguous to fhuD and formerly designated fhuB was determined. It contains an open reading frame for a polypeptide that consists of 659 amino acids. Expression of plasmids containing the fhuB region in an in vitro transcription/translation system and in E. coli minicells revealed a polypeptide with an electrophoretic mobility on SDS-polyacrylamide gels extremely dependent on the experimental conditions employed. This property could be explained by the very hydrophobic nature of the protein and it was concluded that the fhuB locus consists of a structural gene that encodes a membrane protein with a molecular weight of 82,181. The fhuB gene is required for all iron transport systems which operate via hydroxamate compounds. The order of the genes in the fhu operon is fhuA fhuC fhuD fhuB, and transcription proceeds from fhuA to fhuB.

Ferric hydroxamate transport without subsequent iron utilization in Bacillus megaterium.

Iron transport and utilization were examined in Bacillus megaterium Ard1, a mutant that is resistant to the hydroxymate antibiotic A22765 and whose growth is inhibited by the structurally similar hydroxamate Desferal. Rapid, low-level uptake of Desferal-50Fe was observed; such uptake was temperature and energy independent. Gel filtration chromatography of the cytoplasmic fraction of protoplasts labeled with Desferal-55Fe for 30 to 120 s demonstrated only unchanged esferal-55Fe in the cytoplasm. Although B. megaterium Ard1 showed transport of Desferal-59Fe by a process that resembles facilitated diffusion, this organism was unable to transfer iron from this chelate to cellular macromolecules for metabolic use. High-level transport of the ferric hydroxamate schizokinen-59Fe by B. megaterium Ard1 was both temperature and energy dependent. Within 30 s, protoplasts labeled with schizokinen-55Fe contained iron associated with certain macromolecules and in an apparent "pool" of schizokinen-55Fe in the cytoplasmic fraction. Prior transport of Dseferal-55Fe by protoplasts of strain Ard1 did not interfere with subsequent transport and utilization of schizokinen-59Fe. These studies suggest that transport of ferric hydroxamates may occur by a facilitated diffusion-type process; transfer of iron to cellular macromolecules may drive high-level transport of the chelate and may be the step at which energy is required in the iron transport-assimilation process.

Fate of labeled hydroxamates during iron transport from hydroxamate-ion chelates.

The fate of the hydroxamic acid-iron transport cofactors during iron uptake from the (59)Fe(3+) chelates of the (3)H-labeled hydroxamates schizokinen and aerobactin was studied by assay of simultaneous incorporation of both (59)Fe(3+) and (3)H. In the schizokinen-producing organism Bacillus megaterium ATCC 19213 transport of (59)Fe(3+) from the (3)H-schizokinen-(59)Fe(3+) chelate at 37 C was accompanied by rapid uptake and release (within 2 min) of (3)H-schizokinen, although (3)H-schizokinen discharge was temperature-dependent and did not occur at 0 C. In the schizokinen-requiring strain B. megaterium SK11 similar release of (3)H-schizokinen occurred only at elevated concentrations of the double-labeled chelate; at lower chelate concentrations, (3)H-schizokinen remained cell-associated. Temperature-dependent uptake of deferri (iron-free) (3)H-schizokinen to levels equivalent to those incorporated from the chelate form was noted in strain SK11, but strain ATCC 19213 showed only temperature-independent binding of low concentrations of deferri (3)H-schizokinen. These results indicate an initial temperature-independent binding of the ferric hydroxamate which is followed rapidly by temperature-dependent transport of the chelate into the cell and an enzyme catalyzed separation of iron from the chelate. The resulting deferri hydroxamate is discharged from the cell only when a characteristic intracellular concentration of the hydroxamate is exceeded, which happens in the schizokinen-requiring strain only at elevated concentrations of the chelate. This strain also appears to draw the deferri hydroxamate into the cell by a temperature-dependent mechanism. The aerobactin-producing organism Aerobacter aerogenes 62-1 also demonstrated rapid initial uptake and temperature-dependent discharge of (3)H-aerobactin during iron transport from (3)H-aerobactin-(59)Fe(3+), suggesting a similar ferric hydroxamate transport system in this organism.