Hydrogen Shift Reactions Research Articles

Tuning the photoreactivity of Z-hexatriene photoswitches by substituents - a non-adiabatic molecular dynamics study.

To understand how substituents can be used to increase the quantum yield of photochemical electrocyclic ring-closing of the Z-hexa-1,3,5-triene (HT) photoswitch forming cyclohexadiene (CHD), we investigate the S1 photo dynamics of HT and its derivatives 2,5-dimethyl-HT (DMHT), 2-isopropyl-5-methyl-HT (2,5-IMHT), 1-isopropyl-4-methyl-HT (1,4-IMHT), and 2,5-diisopropyl-HT (DIHT) using time-dependent density functional theory surface hopping dynamics. We report detailed photoproduct distributions, formation mechanisms, branching ratios, and wavelength-dependent product quantum yields. Most products have been confirmed experimentally and include all-trans HT derivatives, cyclopropanes, cyclobutenes, cyclopentene, cyclohexadienes, and bicyclic compounds. Regarding CHD formation, we find that for the 2,5-substituted derivatives DMHT, 2,5-IMHT, and DIHT, the branching ratios increase with increasing size of the substituents. In contrast the branching ratios of the E/Z-isomerization decrease with increasing size of the substituents. Due to steric interactions, increasing the size of the substituents increases the amount of gZg rotamers in the ground state, which are prone to CHD formation and have lower E/Z-isomerization probability. Furthermore, we find [1,4], [1,5], and [1,6]-sigmatropic hydrogen shift reactions occurring at large percentages (5% to 15%); for sterical reasons these reactions stem from tZg conformers. DIHT shows the lowest percentage of side product formation among the 2,5-substituted molecules and highest CHD branching ratio; its CHD quantum yield can be increased up to more than 64%, by excitation of DIHT on the red tail of its absorption spectrum, whereas the Z/E-isomerization is reduced below 5% and side reactions practically vanish. This makes DIHT the best candidate for applications in molecular switches.

Hydrogen Shifts in Aryl Radicals and Diradicals: The Role of m-Benzynes

Density functional and coupled cluster results are presented for hydrogen shifts in radicals derived from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and for rearrangement mechanisms for several phenylenes. RCCSD(T)/cc-pVDZ//UBLYP/cc-pVDZ free energy barriers for 1,4-H shifts at 298 K are consistently predicted to be ca. 25 kcal/mol, whereas barriers for 1,5- and 1,6-shifts range from 6 to 28 kcal/mol. The barriers correlate reasonably well with the distance from the radical center to the shifting hydrogen in the reactant. Proposed mechanisms (via diradical intermediates) of known rearrangements of linear [3]phenylene, benzo[b]biphenylene, and angular [4]phenylene have BD(T)/cc-pVDZ//(U)BLYP/cc-pVDZ computed barriers of 74-82 kcal/mol, consistent with pyrolysis temperatures of 900 to 1100 °C. Hydrogen shift reactions in most of the aryl diradicals arising from phenylenes produce m-benzyne intermediates which, despite being 8-15 kcal/mol more stable than other diradicals involved in the pathways, do not significantly lower the computed overall free energies of activation.

Atmospheric autoxidation is increasingly important in urban and suburban North America.

Gas-phase autoxidation-regenerative peroxy radical formation following intramolecular hydrogen shifts-is known to be important in the combustion of organic materials. The relevance of this chemistry in the oxidation of organics in the atmosphere has received less attention due, in part, to the lack of kinetic data at relevant temperatures. Here, we combine computational and experimental approaches to investigate the rate of autoxidation for organic peroxy radicals (RO2) produced in the oxidation of a prototypical atmospheric pollutant, n-hexane. We find that the reaction rate depends critically on the molecular configuration of the RO2 radical undergoing hydrogen transfer (H-shift). RO2 H-shift rate coefficients via transition states involving six- and seven-membered rings (1,5 and 1,6 H-shifts, respectively) of α-OH hydrogens (HOC-H) formed in this system are of order 0.1 s-1 at 296 K, while the 1,4 H-shift is calculated to be orders of magnitude slower. Consistent with H-shift reactions over a substantial energetic barrier, we find that the rate coefficients of these reactions increase rapidly with temperature and exhibit a large, primary, kinetic isotope effect. The observed H-shift rate coefficients are sufficiently fast that, as a result of ongoing NO x emission reductions, autoxidation is now competing with bimolecular chemistry even in the most polluted North American cities, particularly during summer afternoons when NO levels are low and temperatures are elevated.

A Computational Kinetics Study on the Intramolecular Hydrogen Shift Reactions of Alkylperoxy Radicals in 2‐Methyltetrahydrofuran Oxidation

ABSTRACT2‐Methyltetrahydrofuran (2‐MTHF) is one of the potential fuel components based on its combustion behavior, engine efficiency, and emission performance as proposed by the Cluster of Excellence “Tailor Made Fuels from Biomass (TMFB)” at RWTH Aachen University, Germany. Reaction kinetics of intramolecular hydrogen shift (ROO to QOOH) reactions in 2‐MTHF is theoretically investigated in this work. High‐pressure limit rate constants (500–2000 K) are determined from the transition state theory by employing the CBS‐QB3 composite method. Carbon sites neighboring a ring oxygen atom are favorable abstraction sites in 2‐MTHF due to its weak C─H bond strengths. The size of the transition state ring (six‐ and five‐membered) also plays an important role in the isomerization reaction kinetics. Further, effects of ring oxygen and methyl group position in 2‐MTHF are investigated. At 500 K, total rate constants for the isomerization reactions in ROO2 and ROO5t are 51 and 67 times faster in 2‐MTHF than in methylcyclopentane.

Rapid Hydrogen Shift Reactions in Acyl Peroxy Radicals.

We have used quantum mechanical chemical calculations (CCSD(T)-F12a/cc-pVDZ-F12//M06-2X/aug-cc-pVTZ) to investigate the hydrogen shift (H-shift) reactions in acyl peroxy and hydroperoxy acyl peroxy radicals. We have focused on the H-shift reactions from a hydroperoxy group (OOH) (1,X-OOH H-shift with X = 6, 7, 8, or 9) in the hydroperoxy acyl peroxy radicals, this H-shift is a reversible reaction and it scrambles between two peroxides, hydroperoxy acyl peroxy and peroxy peroxoic acid radicals. The forward reaction rate constants of the 1,X-OOH H-shift reactions are estimated to be above 103 s-1 with transition state theory corrected with Eckart quantum tunnelling correction. The ratio between the forward and reverse reaction rate constant of the 1,X-OOH H-shift reactions is around ∼105. Therefore, the equilibrium is pushed toward the production of peroxy peroxoic acid radicals. These very fast 1,X-OOH H-shift reactions are much faster than the reactions with NO and HO2 under most atmospheric conditions and must be included in the atmospheric models when hydroperoxy acyl peroxy radicals are oxidized. Finally, we have observed that H-shift reactions in a pentane acyl peroxy radical (C5-AOO) is fast (>1 s-1); this can have a significant influence on the possible formation of large acyl peroxy nitrate molecules.

Cost-Effective Implementation of Multiconformer Transition State Theory for Peroxy Radical Hydrogen Shift Reactions.

Based on a small test system, (R)-CH(OH)(OO·)CH2CHO, we have developed a cost-effective approach to the practical implementation of multiconformer transition state theory for peroxy radical hydrogen shift reactions at atmospherically relevant temperatures. While conformer searching is crucial for accurate reaction rates, an energy cutoff can be used to significantly reduce the computational cost with little loss of accuracy. For the reaction barrier, high-level calculations are needed, but the highest level of electronic structure theory is not necessary for the relative energy between conformers. Improving the approach to both transition state theory and electronic structure theory decreases the calculated reaction rate significantly, so low-level calculations can be used to rule out slow reactions. Further computational time can be saved by approximating the tunneling coefficients for each transition state by only that of the lowest-energy transition state. Finally, we test and validate our approach using higher-level theoretical values for our test system and existing experimental results for additional peroxy radical hydrogen shift reactions in three slightly larger systems.

Hydrogen shift reactions in four methyl-buten-ol (MBO) peroxy radicals and their impact on the atmosphere

We investigate the hydrogen shift (H-shift) reactions in the peroxy radicals derived from four different methyl-buten-ol (MBO) molecules; 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol (MBO232), 2-methyl-3-buten-1-ol (MBO231), 3-Methyl-3-buten-2-ol (MBO332) and 3-methyl-3-buten-1-ol (MBO331), with quantum mechanical calculations. The rate constants of the 1,5 H-shift reactions in all four MBO peroxy radicals are greater than the rate constants of the 1,4 or 1,6 H-shift reactions. The rate constants for the 1,5 H-shift reaction from either a CH group or an OH group are approximately 1 s−1 and 10−3 s−1, respectively. The atmospheric impact of the MBO232 oxidation is investigated with the global chemical transport model (GEOS-Chem). The 1,4-CH and 1,5-OH H-shift reactions in the MBO232 peroxy radical play a minor role with a total yield of about 2%. The major atmospheric reactions of the MBO232 peroxy radical are the reactions with NO and HO2, with reaction yield of 85% and 13%, respectively.

Unusually Facile Thermal Homodienyl-[1,5]-Hydrogen Shift Reactions in Photochemically Generated Vinyl Aziridines.

A range of photochemically generated tri- and tetracyclic vinyl aziridines have been found to undergo a general and surprisingly low temperature ring opening through a [1,5]-hydrogen shift reaction. The rate of the process was found to be highly dependent on the structure and substitution around the azirdine ring and the alkene terminus, with some substrates being observed to undergo ring opening at temperatures as low as 25 °C. The rigid nature of these polycyclic systems precludes a conformational explanation of these rate differences, and an Eyring study confirmed a negligible entropic barrier to the reaction. However, the Eyring plots for two different aziridines systems showed a significant difference in their enthalpies of activation. It is therefore believed that the levels of aziridine ring strain, as well as electronic effects, are the dominant factors in this sequence.

Rapid Hydrogen Shift Scrambling in Hydroperoxy-Substituted Organic Peroxy Radicals.

Using quantum mechanical calculations, we have investigated hydrogen shift (H-shift) reactions in peroxy radicals derived from the atmospheric oxidation of 1-pentene (CH2═CHCH2CH2CH3) and its monosubstituted derivatives. We investigate the peroxy radicals, HOCH2CH(OO)CR1HCH2CH3, HOCH2CH(OO)CH2CR1HCH3, and HOCH2CH(OO)CH2CH2CR1H2, where the substituent R1 is an alcoholic (OH), a hydroperoxy (OOH), or a methoxy (OCH3) group. For peroxy radicals with an OOH substituent, the H-shift reaction from the hydrogen atom on the OOH group to the OO group is extremely fast. We find that the rate constants of this type of H-shift reactions are greater than 10(3) s(-1) for both the forward and the reverse reactions. It leads to the formation of two different radical isomers that react through different reaction mechanisms and yield different products. These very fast H-shift reactions are much faster than the reactions with NO and HO2 under most atmospheric conditions and must be included in the atmospheric modeling of volatile organic compounds where hydroperoxy peroxy radicals are formed.

Theoretical Investigation of Intramolecular Hydrogen Shift Reactions in 3-Methyltetrahydrofuran (3-MTHF) Oxidation.

3-Methyltetrahydrofuran (3-MTHF) is proposed to be a promising fuel component among the cyclic oxygenated species. To have detailed insight of its combustion kinetics, intramolecular hydrogen shift reactions for the ROO to QOOH reaction class are studied for eight ROO isomers of 3-MTHF. Rate constants of all possible reaction paths that involve formation of cyclic transition states are computed by employing the CBS-QB3 composite method. A Pitzer-Gwinn-like approximation has been applied for the internal rotations in reactants, products, and transition states for the accurate treatment of hindered rotors. Calculated relative barrier heights highlight that the most favorable reaction channel proceeds via a six membered transition state, which is consistent with the computed rate constants. Comparing total rate constants in ROO isomers of 3-MTHF with the corresponding isomers of methylcyclopentane depicts faster kinetics in 3-MTHF than methylcyclopentane reflecting the effect of ring oxygen on the intramolecular hydrogen shift reactions.

Effects of chemical complexity on the autoxidation mechanisms of endocyclic alkene ozonolysis products: from methylcyclohexenes toward understanding α-pinene.

Formation of highly oxidized, multifunctional products in the ozonolysis of three endocyclic alkenes, 1- methylcyclohexene, 4-methylcyclohexene, and α-pinene, was investigated using a chemical ionization atmospheric pressure interface time-of-flight (CI-APi-TOF) mass spectrometer with a nitrate ion (NO3(-)) based ionization scheme. The experiments were performed in borosilicate glass flow tube reactors at room temperature (T = 293 ± 3 K) and at ambient pressure. An ensemble of oxidized monomer and dimer products was detected, with elemental compositions obtained from the high-resolution mass spectra. The monomer product distributions have O/C ratios from 0.8 to 1.6 and can be explained with an autocatalytic oxidation mechanism (=autoxidation) where the oxygen-centered peroxy radical (RO2) intermediates internally rearrange by intramolecular hydrogen shift reactions, enabling more oxygen molecules to attach to the carbon backbone. Dimer distributions are proposed to form by homogeneous peroxy radical recombination and cross combination reactions. These conclusions were supported by experiments where H atoms were exchanged to D atoms by addition of D2O to the carrier gas flow. Methylcyclohexenes were observed to autoxidize in accordance with our previous work on cyclohexene, whereas in α-pinene ozonolysis different mechanistic steps are needed to explain the products observed.

Theoretical investigation of the hydrogen shift reactions in peroxy radicals derived from the atmospheric decomposition of 3-methyl-3-buten-1-ol (MBO331)

The hydroxy peroxy radical derived from the oxidation of 3-methyl-3-buten-1-ol (MBO331), can undergo four different hydrogen shift (H-shift) reactions. We have compared optimized geometries, barrier heights and reaction rate constants obtained with five different DFT functionals (BLYP, B3LYP, BHandHLYP, wB97X-D and M06-2X) with the aug-cc-pVTZ basis set. We found that the single-point CCSD(T)-F12A/VDZ-F12 energies calculated at the different DFT geometries had very similar barrier heights. The wB97X-D, M06-2X and CCSD(T)-F12A/VDZ-F12 barrier heights are comparable. The atmospheric decomposition of the MBO331 peroxy radical was found to undergo a 1,5-CH H-shift reaction with a reaction rate constant of about 1s−1.

The formation of highly oxidized multifunctional products in the ozonolysis of cyclohexene.

The prompt formation of highly oxidized organic compounds in the ozonolysis of cyclohexene (C6H10) was investigated by means of laboratory experiments together with quantum chemical calculations. The experiments were performed in borosilicate glass flow tube reactors coupled to a chemical ionization atmospheric pressure interface time-of-flight mass spectrometer with a nitrate ion (NO3(-))-based ionization scheme. Quantum chemical calculations were performed at the CCSD(T)-F12a/VDZ-F12//ωB97XD/aug-cc-pVTZ level, with kinetic modeling using multiconformer transition state theory, including Eckart tunneling corrections. The complementary investigation methods gave a consistent picture of a formation mechanism advancing by peroxy radical (RO2) isomerization through intramolecular hydrogen shift reactions, followed by sequential O2 addition steps, that is, RO2 autoxidation, on a time scale of seconds. Dimerization of the peroxy radicals by recombination and cross-combination reactions is in competition with the formation of highly oxidized monomer species and is observed to lead to peroxides, potentially diacyl peroxides. The molar yield of these highly oxidized products (having O/C > 1 in monomers and O/C > 0.55 in dimers) from cyclohexene ozonolysis was determined as (4.5 ± 3.8)%. Fully deuterated cyclohexene and cis-6-nonenal ozonolysis, as well as the influence of water addition to the system (either H2O or D2O), were also investigated in order to strengthen the arguments on the proposed mechanism. Deuterated cyclohexene ozonolysis resulted in a less oxidized product distribution with a lower yield of highly oxygenated products and cis-6-nonenal ozonolysis generated the same monomer product distribution, consistent with the proposed mechanism and in agreement with quantum chemical modeling.

Water activation by small free ruthenium oxide clusters.

The reactions of ruthenium clusters, Rux(+) (x = 2-5), and ruthenium oxide clusters, RuxOy(+) (x = 2-5, y = 1-2), with water molecules have been investigated by gas phase ion trap mass spectrometry and first principle density functional calculations. The joint experimental and theoretical study reveals that the reactions of the ruthenium oxide clusters with water are considerably more efficient. This is assigned theoretically to the stronger binding of the water molecules to RuxOy(+) and, more importantly, to water activation leading to an efficient hydrogen transfer reaction from the water molecules to the oxygen atoms of the ruthenium oxide clusters. The theoretically predicted hydrogen shift reaction has been confirmed experimentally through (16)O/(18)O isotope exchange experiments. Calculated energy profiles for the reactions of selected oxide clusters with water illustrate that the oxygen isotope exchange relies on the facile transfer of hydrogen atoms via [1,3] shift reactions between the oxygen atoms of the complexes due to the relatively low barriers involved. These findings might open perspectives for the future realization of water oxidation driven by ruthenium oxide clusters.

A computational study on the kinetics of unimolecular reactions of ethoxyethylperoxy radicals employing CTST and VTST

Diethyl ether (DEE) has favorable properties as a diesel fuel component, including its outstanding cetane number. To utilize this promising fuel, more and more knowledge on the chemical kinetics of DEE oxidation will be required. For the present article, the rate constants of unimolecular reactions of ethoxyethylperoxy radicals, which are main intermediates in the oxidation of DEE under the engine relevant conditions, have been computationally investigated and compared with those of alkanes. Geometries, vibrational frequencies, and energies of reactants, products, and transition states with pronounced barrier were calculated according to the procedure of the CBS-QB3 method. The high-pressure limiting rate constants were calculated in the temperature range of 500−2000K by using a conventional transition state theory with hindered rotor approximation for low frequency torsional mode. The oxygen dissociation reactions have been investigated by using a variational transition state theory based on the CASPT2(7,5)/aug-cc-pvdz single point calculations at UB3LYP/CBSB7 geometries and vibrational frequencies. It was found that the oxidation pathways are equal to those of alkane oxidations, however, the rate constants are significantly different from those of alkanes due to the oxygen vicinity. The rate constants of intramolecular hydrogen shift reactions are from 3 to 8 times larger at 700K than those of alkylic peroxy radical when the abstracted hydrogen is in the β-position of the ether. The rate constant of β-scission reactions for 1,5-intramolecular hydrogen shift products of 1-ethoxyethylperoxy radial is 163 times larger at 700K than that of alkylic hydroperoxy radical, and this reaction becomes a main reaction pathway, whereas cyclic-ether is a main product in alkane oxidation. These characteristic rate constants are given in three-parameter modified Arrhenius form for the refinement of predictive chemical kinetic models being developed.

Consecutive Chemical Activation Steps in the OH‐Initiated Atmospheric Degradation of Isoprene: An Analysis with Coupled Master Equations

ABSTRACTThe influence of a two‐step chemical activation on 1,5‐H and 1,6‐H shift reactions of hydroxyl‐peroxy radicals formed in the atmospheric photooxidation of isoprene was investigated by means of a master equation analysis. To account for multiple chemical activation processes, three master equations were coupled. The general approach of this coupling is described, and consequences for steady‐state regimes are examined. The specific calculations show that chemical activation has no substantial influence on the rate coefficients of the above‐mentioned reactions under tropospheric conditions. However, it is demonstrated that high‐pressure limits of the thermal rate coefficients instead of the falloff‐corrected values have to be used for kinetic modeling. This is a consequence of the continuous population of the high‐energy part of the isoprene‐OH‐O2 adduct distribution by the forming reactions under steady‐state conditions. The rate coefficients of the isomerization reactions at T = 298 K were calculated to be k3a∞ = 1.5 × 10−3 s−1 (1,5‐H‐shift of the 1,2‐isomer) and k4a∞ = 6.5 s−1 (1,6‐H‐shift of the (Z)‐1,4‐isomer). The calculated value of k4a∞ is three orders of magnitude larger than a recently reported experimentally observed rate coefficient for the hydrogen shift reactions of the hydroxyl‐peroxy intermediates. It is shown that this discrepancy is in part due to the fact that the experiment does not distinguish between different structural isomers. A comparison of the experimentally determined isotope effect with the calculated value shows a reasonable agreement.

Calculation of Kinetic Isotope Effects for Intramolecular Hydrogen Shift Reactions Using Semiclassical Instanton Approach

Primary H/D kinetic isotope effects for the [1,5] hydrogen shift reaction in 13-atomic 1,3-pentadiene and [1,7] hydrogen shift reaction in 23-atomic 7-methylocta-1,3,5-triene are calculated using the semiclassical instanton approach. All 33 and 63 internal degrees of freedom, respectively, are treated quantum mechanically with multidimensional tunneling automatically accounted for by the instanton approach. Reactive potential energy surfaces are calculated on-the-fly using mPW1K/6-31+G(d,p) and mPWB1K/6-31+G(d,p) electronic structure methods. The calculated kinetic isotope effects agree well with the previously reported experimental measurements. The analytical expressions of the semiclassical instanton approach allow one to determine quantitative contributions of various physical mechanisms to the calculated kinetic isotope effects. Multidimensional tunneling is found to play important role in both studied hydrogen shift reactions.

The Mechanism of Glucose Isomerization to Fructose over Sn‐BEA Zeolite: A Periodic Density Functional Theory Study

The isomerization of glucose to fructose in the presence of Sn-containing zeolite BEA (beta polymorph A) was studied by periodic DFT calculations. Focus was placed on the nature of the active site and the reaction mechanism. The reactivities of the perfect lattice Sn(IV) site and the hydroxylated SnOH species are predicted to be similar. The isomerization activity of the latter can be enhanced by creating an extended silanol nest in its vicinity. Besides the increased Lewis acidity and coordination flexibility of the Sn center, the enhanced reactivity in this case is ascribed to the reaction environment that promotes activation of the confined sugar intermediates through hydrogen bonding. The resulting multidentate activation of the substrate favors the rate-determining hydrogen-shift reaction. These findings suggest the important role of defect lattice sites in Sn-BEA for catalytic glucose isomerization.

Azo-hydrazo conversion via [1,5]-hydrogen shifts. A combined experimental and theoretical study

Azoalkenes 6e, 6g, 6h, and 8c underwent an easy azo-hydrazo conversion via a [1,5]-hydrogen shift yielding α,β-unsaturated hydrazones. The isomerization products were characterized through spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques. In order to understand the nature of the mechanism of these [1,5]-hydrogen shifts, the transition state structures of the reactions were theoretically studied at the B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) level. Substitution effects in the propenylazo system on the kinetic and thermodynamic parameters were analyzed. An electron localization function (ELF) analysis of the electronic structure of the transition state structure associated with the azo-hydrazo conversion of the simplest 1-azopropene 6a indicates that these [1,5]-hydrogen shifts have a two-stage one-step mechanism via pseudodiradical transition states, in which a formal hydrogen atom is transferred. This finding allows us to reject the pericyclic reaction model for these [1,5]-hydrogen shift reactions.

Tunneling and Conformational Flexibility Play Critical Roles in the Isomerization Mechanism of Vitamin D

The thermal isomerization reaction converting previtamin D to vitamin D is an intramolecular [1,7]-sigmatropic hydrogen shift with antarafacial stereochemistry. We have studied the dynamics of this reaction by means of the variational transition-state theory with multidimensional corrections for tunneling in both gas-phase and n-hexane environments. Two issues that may have important effects on the dynamics were analyzed in depth, i.e., the conformations of previtamin D and the quantum effects associated with the hydrogen-transfer reaction. Of the large number of conformers of previtamin D that were located, there are 16 that have the right disposition to react. The transition-state structures associated with these reaction paths are very close in energy, so all of them should be taken into account for an accurate calculation of both the thermal rate constants and the kinetic isotope effects. This issue is particularly important because the contribution of each of the reaction paths to the total thermal rate constant is quite sensitive to the environment. The dynamics results confirm that tunneling plays an important role and that model systems that were considered previously to study the hydrogen shift reaction cannot mimic the complexity introduced by the flexibility of the rings of previtamin D. Finally, the characterization of the conformers of both previtamin D and vitamin D allowed the calculation of the thermal equilibrium constants of the isomerization process.