Hydrogen Station Research Articles

Review of the Planning and Distribution Methodologies to Locate Hydrogen Infrastructure in the Territory

The member countries of the European Union (EU) have prioritized the incorporation of hydrogen as a key component of their energy objectives. As the world moves towards reducing its dependence on fossil fuels, alternative sources of energy have gained prominence. With the growing development of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), the establishment of an infrastructure for hydrogen production and the creation of a network of service stations have become essential. This article’s purpose is to conduct a methodical review of literature regarding the use of green hydrogen for transportation and the planning of imperative infrastructure in the territory of the EU, specifically Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRS). In order to increase the acceptance of fuel cell vehicles, a comprehensive network of hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) must be built that enable drivers to refuel their vehicles quickly and easily, similar to gasoline or diesel vehicles. The literature review on this topic was conducted using the Web of Science database (WOS), with a variety of search terms proposed to cover all the key components of green hydrogen production and refueling infrastructure. The implementation of HRS powered by renewable energy sources is an important step in the adoption of fuel cell vehicles, and overcoming the obstacles that come with their implementation will require cooperation and innovation from governments, private businesses, and other stakeholders.

Dynamic characteristics analysis and valve core optimization for second stage hydrogen pressure reducer of hydrogen decompression valve

As an important component of pressure management system, hydrogen decompression valve (HDV) is used in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, hydrogen refueling stations, etc. The high-pressure difference causes severe pressure fluctuation. Thus, the HDV is composed of multi-stage pressure reducers. Specially, the outlet pressure from the HDV highly affects the pressure of fuel cell. The service life and operation condition of fuel cell is affected significantly by the HDV. This paper conducted the research of the second stage hydrogen pressure reducer (SHPR) of on-boarding hydrogen decompression valve. The force and dynamic characteristics of the valve core are obtained and the flow characteristic is analyzed through the steady and transient flow model. The results are shown that the fluid force and combined force on the valve core exhibit linear increase with inlet pressure and throttling area. The flow characteristics in the throttling gap exhibit similar distribution law under different throttling lengths and inlet pressures. The pressure-drop at entrance and exit of the throttling gap is drastic. Besides, the spring stiffness has a significant impact on the dynamic characteristics of the valve core. With the increase of spring stiffness, the dynamic characteristics change from unstable-state to stable-state under the sudden increase of inlet pressure. The larger spring stiffness initially causes displacement fluctuation of the valve core and then the valve core maintains a stable opening under the stable state. Finally, the optimized structure of valve core is proposed and the better stability of SHPR has been achieved. Meanwhile, there is no significant difference in flow performance but the dynamic characteristics are improved.

CFD Simulation and ANN Prediction of Hydrogen Leakage and Diffusion Behavior in a Hydrogen Refuelling Station

Hydrogen refueling station (HRS) is an essential part of the infrastructure for promoting the hydrogen economy. Since hydrogen is a flammable and explosive gas, hydrogen released from high‐pressure hydrogen storage equipment in HRS will likely cause combustion or explosion accidents. Studying high‐pressure hydrogen leakage in HRS is a prerequisite for promoting hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and HRS. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of an HRS in a demonstrated project in Ningbo, China, was established on the ANSYS FLUENT software platform. The CFD model for hydrogen leakage simulation was validated by comparing the simulation results with experimental data in the literature. The effects of the direction and mass flow rate of the hydrogen leakage jet, as well as the direction and speed of ambient wind, on hydrogen diffusion behavior were investigated. The spreading distances of the flammable hydrogen cloud were predicted using an artificial neural network for horizontal leakage. The results show that the jet direction strongly affected the flammable cloud flow. The greater the mass flow rate of the leak, the greater the hydrogen dispersion distance and the volume of the flammable hydrogen cloud. At a hydrogen leakage mass flow rate of 4.5589 kg/s, the volume of the hydrogen flammable cloud reached 6,140.46 m3 at 30 s of leakage. The ambient wind speed has complicated effects on spreading the flammable cloud. The wind makes the flammable cloud move in certain directions, and the higher wind speed accelerates the diffusion of the flammable gas in the air. The results of the study can be used as a reference for the study of high‐pressure hydrogen leakage in HRS and will play an important role in the safe demonstration of the studied project.

Thermodynamic analysis of diaphragm compressor in hydrogen refuelling stations by using fluid-structure interaction method

Low efficiency is a significant challenge for diaphragm compressors used in hydrogen refuelling stations. To investigate the thermodynamic performance of diaphragm compressors, a mathematical model using the fluid–structure interaction (FSI) method was proposed. Thermodynamic equations of the gas and oil, valve plate movement, and large diaphragm deformation were combined in the model. The deformation of the diaphragm is assumed to be quasi-static free, and fluid leakage and heat transfer are disregarded in this model. Experiments using a 90 MPa diaphragm compressor were conducted to validate the model simulation results. The performance of the diaphragm compressor was studied using three types of pressure–volume diagrams (overall, gas, and oil pressure–volume diagrams) obtained via simulations. The results showed that suction volume loss owing to the expansion of the hydraulic oil and clearance gas was more than 40 % of the stroke volume, reducing the volumetric efficiency to less than 60 %. The effects of the oil overflow pressure on the diaphragm compressor performance were also analysed. According to the simulation results, the volumetric efficiency and isentropic indicated efficiency of the compressor were largest when the oil overflow pressure was adjusted to 1.1 times the discharge pressure. The performance of the diaphragm compressor was predicted with different suction pressures. Volumetric efficiency and isentropic indicated efficiency decreased considerably with suction pressure; when the suction pressure of the compressor was reduced to 8 MPa, the volumetric and isentropic indicated efficiencies were less than 15 % and less than 55 %, respectively.

Low-Carbon Oriented Collaborative Planning of Electricity-Hydrogen-Gas-Transportation Integrated System Considering Hydrogen Vehicles

Under the pressures of the energy crisis and climate change, hydrogen vehicles (HVs) have experienced significant growth in many countries recently. To promote the penetration of HVs, a low-carbon collaborative planning model based on carbon emission flow (CEF) and a modified user equilibrium theory is proposed for the electricity-hydrogen-gas-transportation integrated system. New carbon capture and storage equipment, steam methane reforming (SMR) equipment, and renewable energy equipment are planned in the model, which collaborates closely to provide green hydrogen. The proposed model considers the influence of different hydrogen production methods (electrolysis and SMR) on carbon emission reduction in the integrated energy network. Aiming to account for carbon emission from the consumption perspective, the emission caps are transferred from the energy supply side to the hydrogen production station side based on the CEF model. Additionally, the proposed modified user equilibrium model considering HV cruising range and hydrogen refueling station's location is innovatively utilized to solve the HV traffic flow assignment problem and evaluate the effectiveness of candidate roads in reducing congestion time. Overall, the total cost including equipment cost, energy consumption cost, and travel time cost is minimized to obtain the optimal integrated system planning results. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed model is effective in reducing the carbon emissions and traffic time for the integrated network considering HV demands.

Multi-period optimization of hydrogen refueling station layouts considering refueling satisfaction and hydrogen fuel cell vehicle market diffusion

The strategic site selection of hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) in the network and user satisfaction mutually influence each other, presenting a typical bilevel planning problem for optimizing the hydrogen refueling network.

Managing manipulation behavior in hydrogen refueling station planning by a large group decision making method with hesitant fuzzy linguistic information

Managing manipulation behavior in hydrogen refueling station planning by a large group decision making method with hesitant fuzzy linguistic information

Development of Technical Specifications and Process System Requirements for the World’s Largest LH2 Refueling Station

Hydrogen is emerging as one of the premising energy sources to achieve carbon neutral society. To efficiently store and make use of the produced hydrogen by various methods, liquid hydrogen and liquid hydrogen refueling station (LHRS) are spotlighted as solutions for storage and utilization sector respectively. However, technical limitations of cryogenic pumps, heat exchangers and unconsolidated standards for LHRS led to hinder the wide spread of the stations. This paper reviews general technical specifications and safety standards of commercialized small-scale LHRS and suggests technical specifications and safety standards for large-scale LHRS. Especially, an application of separated cryogenic pumps and heat integration for the vaporizer specializes the designed station charging 1000kg of hydrogen per day in this paper from small-scale LHRS and other large-scale LHRS. The authors expect commercializing large-scale LHRS with the proposed technical specification and process system requirements to be able and the safety standards set for the designed station can contribute to the unification of world LHRS standards.

Інтеграція водневих технологій у транспортні двигуни внутрішнього згоряння: аналіз впливу на ефективність та екологічність

This article delves into the promising realm of hydrogen technologies in the transportation sector, highlighting their potential to significantly reduce harmful emissions and promote sustainable development. The discussion begins with a comprehensive review of current hydrogen internal combustion engine (ICE) technologies, examining the advancements that have been made and the technical solutions available to enhance the efficiency of these engines. It underscores the environmental benefits of hydrogen ICEs, such as the reduction of greenhouse gases and pollutants, and explores the economic advantages, including decreased dependency on fossil fuels and the creation of new job opportunities. Furthermore, the article discusses the social benefits of adopting hydrogen technologies, such as improved public health and the potential for innovation-driven economic growth. It also addresses the significant infrastructural challenges associated with the production, storage, transportation, and distribution of hydrogen. Potential solutions to these challenges are proposed, including investments in new technologies, expansion of production capacities, and the development of specialized infrastructure. The article provides detailed case studies of successful hydrogen technology implementations in various countries. In Japan, hydrogen-powered buses in Tokyo demonstrate the environmental and technological advancements achieved. Germany’s hydrogen trains by Alstom illustrate the transition from diesel to hydrogen in public transportation, showcasing economic and ecological benefits. South Korea's hydrogen taxis in Seoul highlight the social impact and infrastructural development necessary for widespread adoption. Lastly, California’s extensive network of hydrogen fueling stations supports the growing number of hydrogen cars, reflecting a successful model of public-private partnership and government incentives. Through these case studies, the article emphasizes the transformative potential of hydrogen technologies in creating a sustainable and clean future for transportation. It calls for continued investments in technology, infrastructure, and collaboration between governments and the private sector to overcome existing challenges and fully realize the benefits of hydrogen as a key energy source in the transportation sector.

A Study on relationship between Hydrogen Station Development and Land Use

A Study on relationship between Hydrogen Station Development and Land Use

Quenching characteristics and mechanism of hydrogen-air mixtures by corrugated plate flame arrester under inert conditions

In this study, the flame quenching performance of flame arresters under the inerting conditions for existing pipeline of hydrogen refueling station is investigated. The critical concentration of inert gas and the critical flame quenching velocity of hydrogen explosion are obtained. The results show that hydrogen explosion overpressure decreases significantly with the increase in flame arrester thickness or decrease in porosity. Furthermore, the presence of flame arresters significantly reduces the inert gas concentration required to achieve the flame quenching effect. For the same flame quenching effect, the amount of CO2 used is less than that of N2. The laminar burning velocity of hydrogen at different inert gas concentrations is calculated and the sensitivity analysis is performed. It is found that the poor combustion state is more sensitive to N2 inerting. Considering the inerting effect of inert gas on hydrogen explosion, the flame quenching criterion is modified. The flame quenching temperature of hydrogen under different critical concentrations of inert gas and parameters of corrugated plate of flame arrester is calculated. It is found that the quenching temperature of hydrogen is approximately 1500 K. The moderation effect of inert gas and corrugated plate flame arresters on hydrogen explosion are mutually enhancing. In summary, smaller porosity leads to higher fluid–solid heat transfer efficiency; smaller critical concentration of inert gas, and higher quenching temperature.

Detailed Cost Analysis of Hydrogen Refueling Costs for Fleets

AbstractThe costs for hydrogen refueling of fleets were calculated by a two‐step approach. Firstly, different hydrogen refueling station (HRS) system configurations were simulated and optimized for various HRS sizes and 350 bar pressure, with the Fraunhofer ISE's toolkit H2ProSim, showing that large‐scale and pipeline‐supplied HRS can reduce the hydrogen refueling costs. Secondly, as customer travel costs to the HRS play an important role, especially in the hydrogen market activation phase, the placement and dimensioning of the HRS network was optimized in a case study for the Upper Rhine region. The analysis shows possible network structure and cost distributions for a set of specific customers. Hydrogen supply costs are highly dependent on the hydrogen demand and spatial distribution of the customers and can drop to values of around € 0.60 kg−1 for depot refueling stations for high‐volume customers. However, some customers cannot be supplied at a reasonable cost.

A study on metrological cross-validation of hydrogen refueling stations using a hybrid metrology evaluation system

Hydrogen refueling stations play a pivotal role in advancing hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Ensuring the accuracy and reliability of these stations is crucial for their safe and efficient operation. This study proposes a hybrid metrology evaluation system for the comprehensive cross-validation of hydrogen refueling stations. The system combines experimental measurements with computational models to thoroughly assess the stations' performance. The main objectives of this study are to evaluate the precision, accuracy, and reliability of hydrogen refueling stations and to identify potential uncertainties or sources of error in measurements. Six refueling experiments were conducted, varying the refueling pressure from 476 bar to 735 bar and the refueling rate from 0.601486 kg/min to 0.702694 kg/min. The maximum refueling capacity was determined to be approximately 6.3 kg, based on the specifications of the NEXO vehicle.Throughout the experiments, data on critical parameters such as pressure, weight, and flow rate were collected. These data were meticulously analyzed and compared with expected values derived from computational models. The results convincingly demonstrate that the hybrid metrology evaluation system offers a robust and precise evaluation of hydrogen refueling stations. The system adeptly identifies discrepancies between experimental measurements and computational models, facilitating the correction of potential measurement errors.This study contributes significantly to the enhancement of metrological cross-validation techniques for hydrogen refueling stations, ensuring their precision and dependability. The study findings can inform the development of standardized metrological protocols and guidelines for the certification and calibration of hydrogen refueling stations. By establishing accurate and dependable metrological validation methods, the adoption of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles can be expedited, promoting a sustainable and environmentally friendly transportation system.

Integration of mobile power-hydrogen storage systems in distribution-level networks: A fuzzy information gap optimization framework

In recent years, renewable energy sources (RESs) have had unquestionably significant benefits. However, maximum penetration of RESs has always been challenging due to their intermittent nature. To address this challenge, this study advances a framework for the flexibility of the distribution network (DN) by employing transportable electrical storages (TESs) and transportable hydrogen storages (THSs). To do so, the TESs are considered to transfer electrical energy among high-penetrated and high-demand points. In addition, curtailed renewable power can be converted to green hydrogen and transferred to hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) using the THSs. To further flexibility, this work considers an incentive-based demand response (DR) program and vehicle-to-parking lot (V2PL) capable plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs). Moreover, a binary-based method is developed to carry out the trajectory planning of the TESs and THSs and the Floyd algorithm is exploited to minimize traveling and simulation time. Furthermore, the fuzzy information gap decision theory (IGDT) is proposed to enhance the scheduling robustness against the uncertainty of RESs. The obtained results corroborated the positive impact of the TESs and THSs by declining the operation cost by about 4.8 %. Moreover, the proposed uncertainty management model is quite robust against RESs’ uncertainty by achieving about 37.5 % less operation cost.

Hydrogen refueling station synergistically driven by liquid hydrogen pump and thermal compression

The energy consumption of conventional 70-MPa hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) with liquid hydrogen (LH2) pumps remains at a high level due to the low efficiency of LH2 pumps working at extremely high pressures, up to nearly 90 MPa. This paper presents a novel HRS with significantly lower energy consumption, based on a step-by-step compression strategy enabled by a highly-efficient 50-MPa LH2 pump for low-pressure compression and a subsequent thermal compression module for high-pressure compression driven by thermal energy. The performance of the cryogenic pressure vessels in the HRS process is analyzed via a numerical model, and then several improvements to the HRS process are proposed for large-scale refueling requirements. Finally, the techno-economic performance of the HRS is compared with the conventional HRSs and the HRS with pure thermal compression. Compared to the conventional HRSs with 90-MPa LH2 pumps, the capital cost of the proposed 400-kg/day HRS is reduced to $1.52M from $1.80M, while its energy consumption is reduced to 0.3 kWh/kgH2 from 1.3 kWh/kgH2. This work provides a new solution for low-energy-consumption hydrogen refueling which would be beneficial for reducing the overall cost of the hydrogen supply chain.

Modeling and performance analysis of emergency response process for hydrogen leakage and explosion accidents

To address concerns associated with the initial response process following hydrogen refueling station leakage and explosion accidents, this research introduces the utilization of stochastic colored Petri nets for dynamic modeling of the emergency response procedure. Through the construction of a process model for responding to hydrogen leakage and explosion accidents at refueling stations, the model's effectiveness is assessed using an Isomorphic Markov chain (MC) analysis approach, followed by simulation and analysis of the emergency response procedure. Furthermore, the performance of the emergency process in managing hydrogen leakage and explosion accidents at refueling stations is evaluated, considering place occupancy probabilities and transition utilization probabilities. By optimizing the timing of transitions, critical stages in the process for handling hydrogen leakage and explosion accidents at hydrogen refueling stations are identified, and recommendations for process enhancement are proposed. The findings reveal that continuous hydrogen leakage conditions and the phase involving the summoning of rescue personnel are prone to information congestion. The timely arrival of the on-site manager and the prompt reporting of incident details emerge as pivotal actions within the emergency response process for hydrogen refueling station leakage and combustion incidents. These actions wield substantial influence over the efficacy of emergency response and mitigation, underscoring their significance as primary areas for improvement.

Temporal assessment of emergency response and rescue capability for hybrid hydrogen-gasoline fueling stations based on dynamic scenario construction

In the event of a fire or explosion at a hybrid hydrogen-gasoline fueling station, the consequences can be significantly more severe compared to a traditional refueling station or hydrogen refueling station. It is imperative to establish an effective assessment model specific to the hybrid station to prevent and mitigate such accidents. This paper introduces a temporal dynamic assessment model designed to evaluate the emergency response and rescue capabilities of hybrid hydrogen-gasoline fueling stations. The model is grounded in dynamic scenario construction and utilizes information-driven theory. This innovative approach allows for evaluations of the risk evolution process at different stages of an accident. The proposed assessment model combines the Temporal Weighted Average (TOWA) and Temporal Weighted Geometric Average (TOWGA) operators to integrate assessment values across different stages including the initial disaster assessment, emergency action plans, effectiveness feedback, and emergency response adjustment. This integration yields a comprehensive dynamic assessment value for the emergency response and rescue capabilities of the hybrid hydrogen-gasoline fueling station. Based on the dynamic assessment of a previously occurring accident, the specialized emergency management department performed most effectively during the incident response stage, achieving a commendable assessment value of 3.184. Following closely was the government emergency response department, with assessment values of 2.865 and 2.277. This study offers a novel analytical perspective for emergency management in hybrid hydrogen-gasoline fueling stations by incorporating the findings of both dynamic and static assessments.

Fault Diagnosis Strategy Based on BOA-ResNet18 Method for Motor Bearing Signals with Simulated Hydrogen Refueling Station Operating Noise

The harsh working environment of hydrogen refueling stations often causes equipment failure and is vulnerable to mechanical noise during monitoring. This limits the accuracy of equipment monitoring, ultimately decreasing efficiency. To address this issue, this paper presents a motor bearing vibration signal diagnosis method that employs a Bayesian optimization (BOA) residual neural network (ResNet). The industrial noise signal of the hydrogenation station is simulated and then combined with the motor bearing signal. The resulting one-dimensional bearing signal is processed and transformed into a two-dimensional signal using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). Afterwards, the signal is segmented using the sliding window translation method to enhance the data volume. After comparing signal feature extraction and classification results from various convolutional neural network models, ResNet18 yields the best classification accuracy, achieving a training accuracy of 89.50% with the shortest computation time. Afterwards, the hyperparameters of ResNet18 such as InitialLearnRate, Momentum, and L2Regularization Parameter are optimized using the Bayesian optimization algorithm. The experiment findings demonstrate a diagnostic accuracy of 99.31% for the original signal model, while the accuracy for the bearing signal, with simulated industrial noise from the hydrogenation station, can reach over 92%.

The market introduction of hydrogen focusing on bus refueling

Public transport plays a prominent role with respect to mitigating transport-related environmental effects by improving passenger transport efficiency and the quality of life in cities. Batteries and fuel cells are at the forefront of the technological shift to zero-emission powertrains. Within the scope of the German-funded project BIC H2, corresponding systems analysis research focuses on the market introduction of fuel cell–electric buses in the Rhine–Ruhr Metropolitan Region through 2035. This study presents the related methods and major outcomes of this techno-economic research, which spans spatially-resolved hydrogen demand modeling of all relevant sectors, to hydrogen refueling stations and upstream infrastructure modeling, to scenario-based analyses. The latter builds upon an empirical study supporting the development of the Hydrogen Roadmap of the State of North Rhine–Westphalia (NRW). Our results show that the demand in NRW alone is expected to account for one third of total German hydrogen use. Hydrogen bus refueling could substantially support market introduction during its early phases. In the long term, however, hydrogen demand in industry is significantly higher compared to that in the transport sector. Furthermore, spatial analysis identifies regions with pronounced hydrogen demands that could, therefore, be candidates for initial infrastructure investments. With the Cologne area showing the highest hydrogen demand levels, such regions can offer particularly high infrastructure utilization, e.g., for bus refueling. On the infrastructure side, trailers for transporting gaseous hydrogen to refueling stations are the most favorable option through 2035. Pipelines would be the preferred solution soon after 2035 due to increased hydrogen demand. If effectively deployed, converted natural gas pipelines would be the most cost-effective option even earlier.

Intelligent energy management for an on-grid hydrogen refueling station based on dueling double deep Q network algorithm with NoisyNet

The development of hydrogen-based vehicles (HVs) can help achieve a zero-carbon future; however, the availability of hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) prevents their widespread adoption as personal vehicles. Existing studies have investigated the energy management of HRSs using various methods. However, there have been no reports of implementing a deep reinforcement learning (DRL) approach to address these uncertainties and achieve real-time decision making. This study proposes an energy management optimization model of an on-grid HRS based on the improved dueling double deep Q network(D3QN) algorithm with NoisyNet. The primary goal is to reduce the cost of operating an HRS and improve voltage stability while satisfying the hydrogen demand of HVs. Notably, this study adopts an improved version of the double deep Q network (DDQN), that is, the NoisyNet-D3QN (NN-D3QN) approach, because NoisyNet can aid efficient exploration and the dueling network can generalize learning across actions. The adopted NN-D3QN algorithm has better performance than other basic algorithms. Compared with the NN-DDQN, D3QN, and DDQN approaches, the reward of the proposed method increases by 19.08 %, 31.66 %, and 39.26 %, respectively.