Hydrogen Station Research Articles

Economical assessment comparison for hydrogen reconversion from ammonia using thermal decomposition and electrolysis

Ammonia is a promising alternative for the storage and transport of renewable hydrogen over long distances. In this paper, a techno-economic assessment was conducted to evaluate the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) produced from renewable ammonia feedstocks. Both thermal and electrochemical pathways were analyzed. For the thermal pathway we investigated the decomposition using fixed bed reactor and membrane technology, while alkaline electrolysis was studied for the electrochemical route. We evaluated different process scales corresponding to stationary reconversion in a hydrogen refueling station (1000 kgH2/day) or an ammonia import terminal (1500 tNH3/year) and mobile on-board reconversion for a heavy-duty truck (22 kgH2/day). The results show that currently the cheapest option to produce hydrogen from ammonia is the thermal decomposition with membrane technology for import terminal, fixed bed for the hydrogen refueling station, and electrolysis on-board a truck. The levelized cost of hydrogen for the thermal decomposition methods in an ammonia import terminal lie in the range of hydrogen prices produced from today's mix of renewable energy and water as feedstock in Europe. A sensitivity analysis shows that, regardless of the process scale, the parameters with the highest impact on the levelized cost of hydrogen are the reactor temperature for the membrane technology, and ammonia price for fixed bed and electrolysis technologies. The reconversion costs in the latter case are most sensitive to the cell voltage. A future scenario analysis indicates that ammonia electrolysis reconversion costs can be reduced between 14% and 44%, depending on the process scale.

Economic analysis of hydrogen refueling station considering different operation modes

Hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) are crucial infrastructures for the advancement of hydrogen energy. To promote and construct HRSs, a cost-benefit analysis is essential. Factors such as hydrogen transportation, storage, production technology, and subsidy policies can impact the costs. This paper aims to analyze the economics of HRSs under four operation modes, ie., on-site hydrogen production, off-site production with pipeline transportation, off-site production with tube trailer, and off-site production with liquid hydrogen tanker. Two life-cycle analysis models, an annualized cost model for hydrogen transportation and a levelized cost model for HRSs, are established for economic assessment. The study reveals that hydrogen supply costs account for over 50% of the LCOH for off-site station, and power costs drive up the LCOH for on-site station. Among the four operation modes, off-site station with pipeline is most economical, and the cost advantage increases as pipeline capacity utilization rate reaches 100%, but decreases as it drops to 20%. off-site station with long tubes is economical within 300 km, and off-site station with liquid hydrogen tankers is more economical within 300km∼1,000 km. On-site hydrogen production by water electrolysis is not economical at a cost of 35.24 CNY/kg. The optimal operation scheme under different hydrogen source distances is proposed.

Deterministic risk assessment of hydrogen leak from a fuel cell truck in a real-scale hydrogen refueling station

Deterministic risk assessment for hydrogen installations offers an integrated solution for H2 risk assessment, incorporating a hydrogen release model, a site-specific 3D geometry model, a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) tool, and a consequence analysis methodology. Empirical engineering models expedite the preparation of source terms and harm evaluations, while CFD generates 3D contours of radiation and overpressure loads. A case study is provided by investigating a gaseous hydrogen leak of a truck in a refueling station with a large roof. The effects of leak diameters, roof configurations, and ignition locations on hydrogen dispersion, combustion, and hazard analysis are examined. Results indicate that the majority of the burnable cloud accumulates in a half-meter layer under the ceiling, diminishing within a minute. The impact of thermal radiation on individuals is insignificant, but overpressures increase the likelihood of structure failures, indirectly affecting human fatality. These findings inform the optimization of refueling station design and safety management.

Increasing energy efficiency of hydrogen refueling stations via optimal thermodynamic paths

This work addresses the energy efficiency of hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) using a first-principles model and optimal control methods to find minimal entropy production operating paths. The HRS model shows good agreement with experimental data, achieving maximum state of charge and temperature discrepancies of 1 and 7%, respectively. Model solution and optimization is achieved at a relatively low computational time (40 s) when compared to models of the same degree of accuracy. The entropy production mapping indicates the flow control valve as the main source of irreversibility, accounting for 85% of the total entropy production in the process. The minimal entropy production refueling path achieves energy savings from 20 to 27% with respect to the SAE J2601 protocol, depending on the ambient temperature. Finally, the proposed method under near-reversible refueling conditions shows a theoretical reduction of 43% in the energy demand with respect to the SAE J2601 protocol.

Challenges of a sustainable energy and vehicle-related value chain for BEVs and FCEVs through the 5th wave theory

Challenges of a sustainable energy and vehicle-related value chain for BEVs and FCEVs through the 5th wave theory

A data-based scheduling methodology for constructing hydrogen refueling stations

A data-based scheduling methodology for constructing hydrogen refueling stations

Resilience of hydrogen fuel station-integrated power systems with high penetration of photovoltaics

Hydrogen fuel stations (HFSs) may be connected to power systems; to absorb electricity, produce hydrogen and supply hydrogen demands. To the best of the authors' knowledge, the resilience of HFS-integrated power systems has not been addressed in the literature. In this research, a novel strategy is proposed for resilience enhancement of PV-rich HFS-integrated power systems, considering the uncertainties. In the proposed strategy, fuel cells (FCs) and hydrogen tanks are added to HFSs and mobile batteries are added to the power system. A two-stage stochastic model is developed in which the location of mobile batteries are the first-stage here-and-now decision variables and other variables are second-stage wait-and-see decision variables. The model is formulated as a multi-objective problem as the ability of the system to supply both electricity and hydrogen demands are considered. Expected load not served (ELNS) is used as resilience metric. Case study is a modified IEEE 24-bus power system with 5 HFSs. The results confirm that with the proposed resilience enhancement strategy, hurricane does not result in any shed for hydrogen demands. As per results, mobile batteries are the most efficient tools in resilience enhancement of the studied system; they cause 84 % improvement in ELNS of electricity and 43 % improvement in ELNS of hydrogen. The results also show that besides mobile batteries, hydrogen storage tanks and FCs are the most efficient components in resilience enhancement of the system. Hydrogen tanks improve ELNS of electricity by 1.8 % and remove the need of system operator to shed hydrogen demands. A sensitivity analysis is done to see how the results of the developed model are sensitive to its parameters.

Process design and improvement for hydrogen production based on thermodynamic analysis: Practical application to real-world on-site hydrogen refueling stations

An energy source transition is necessary to realize carbon neutrality, emphasizing the importance of a hydrogen economy. The transportation sector accounted for 27% of annual carbon emissions in 2019, highlighting the increasing importance of transitioning to hydrogen vehicles and establishing hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs). In particular, HRSs need to be prioritized for deploying hydrogen vehicles and developing hydrogen supply chains. Thus, research on HRS is important for achieving carbon neutrality in the transportation sector. In this study, we improved the efficiency and scaled up the capacity of an on-site HRS (based on steam methane reforming with a hydrogen production rate of 30 Nm3/h) in Seoul, Korea. This HRS was a prototype with low efficiency and capacity. Its efficiency was increased through thermodynamic analysis and heat exchanger network synthesis. Furthermore, the process was scaled up from 30 Nm3/h to 150 Nm3/h to meet future hydrogen demand. The results of exergy analysis indicated that the exergy destruction in the reforming reactor and heat exchanger accounted for 58.1% and 19.8%, respectively, of the total exergy destruction. Thus, the process was improved by modifying the heat exchanger network to reduce the exergy losses in these units. Consequently, the thermal and exergy efficiencies were increased from 75.7% to 78.6% and from 68.1% to 70.4%, respectively. The improved process was constructed and operated to demonstrate its performance. The operational and simulation data were similar, within the acceptable error ranges. This study provides guidelines for the design and installation of low-carbon on-site HRSs.

Hydrogen station prognostics and health monitoring model

Hydrogen fuel has shown promise as a clean, alternative fuel aiding in the reduction of fossil fuel dependence within the transportation sector. However, hydrogen refueling stations and infrastructure remains a barrier and are a prerequisite for consumer adoption of low-cost and low-emission fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). The costs for FCEV fueling include both station capital costs and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs. Contributing to these O&M costs, unscheduled maintenance is presently more costly and more frequent than for similar gasoline fueling infrastructure and is asserted to be a limiting factor in achieving FCEV customer acceptance and cost parity. Unscheduled maintenance leads to longer station downtime, therefore, causing an increase in missed fueling opportunities, which forces customers to seek refueling at other operable stations that may be significantly farther away. This research proposes a framework for a hydrogen station prognostics health monitoring (H2S PHM) model that can minimize unexpected downtime by predicting the remaining useful life for primary hydrogen station components within the major station subsystems. The H2S PHM model is a data-driven statistical model, based on O&M data collected from 34 retail hydrogen stations located in the U.S. The primary subcomponents studied are the dispenser, compressor, and chiller. The remaining useful life calculations are used to decide whether or not maintenance should be completed based on the prediction and expected future station use. This paper presents the background, method, and results for the H2S PHM model as for a means for improving station availability and customer confidence in FCEVs and hydrogen infrastructure.

Green Certificate-Driven Photovoltaic Promotion in Distribution Networks Hosting Hydrogen Fueling Stations for Future Sustainable Transportation: A Risk-Adjusted Dominance Analysis

The growing number of hydrogen vehicles (HVs) has necessitated the development of hydrogen fueling stations (HFSs) to meet the hydrogen demand. This development will target environmental concerns related to electricity generation as HFSs consume power to convert electricity into hydrogen. This study focuses on the optimal risk-aware scheduling problem of a distributed network highly penetrated with photovoltaic (PV) resources. The model addresses the optimal operation of HFs under time-of-use, demand response, and multi-market mechanisms with an expanded role for PV generation under the green certificate (GCT) approach. This brings further environmental and economic benefits, as there is a growing global emphasis on the shift to a low-carbon economy. However, the uncertainties arising from PV operation, HVs’ demand, electricity load, and market prices, potentially affect the decision-maker's ability under the risky conditions. Though second-order stochastic dominance (STD) is implemented for risk management. Results show that applying the GCT method increases 5% (from 0.52 to 0.61 MW) of renewable generation and reduces 23% (300 kg) of CO2 emissions. As the conservativity of decision-makers enhances, 10% of further operation costs are imposed on the system. Results indicate that next to curbing CO2 emissions, the flexibility and robustness of the system can be improved.

Economic Analysis of a Photovoltaic Hydrogen Refueling Station Based on Hydrogen Load

With the goal of achieving “carbon peak in 2030 and carbon neutrality in 2060”, as clearly proposed by China, the transportation sector will face long–term pressure on carbon emissions, and the application of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles will usher in a rapid growth period. However, true “zero carbon” emissions cannot be separated from “green hydrogen”. Therefore, it is of practical significance to explore the feasibility of renewable energy hydrogen production in the context of hydrogen refueling stations, especially photovoltaic hydrogen production, which is applied to hydrogen refueling stations (hereinafter referred to “photovoltaic hydrogen refueling stations”). This paper takes a hydrogen refueling station in Shanghai with a supply capacity of 500 kg/day as the research object. Based on a characteristic analysis of the hydrogen demand of the hydrogen refueling station throughout the day, this paper studies and analyzes the system configuration, operation strategy, environmental effects, and economics of the photovoltaic hydrogen refueling station. It is estimated that when the hydrogen price is no less than 6.23 USD, the photovoltaic hydrogen refueling station has good economic benefits. Additionally, compared with the conventional hydrogen refueling station, it can reduce carbon emissions by approximately 1237.28 tons per year, with good environmental benefits.

Analysis of energy saving potential of an asynchronous refueling process for liquid hydrogen station

Liquid hydrogen station shows a great advantage in the future larger market of fuel cell vehicles. However, the energy-saving potential of the liquid hydrogen station remains underexplored. Therefore, a novel asynchronous refueling process (HRP-as) to refuel the vehicle and the high-pressure storage system is proposed based on a conventional synchronous hydrogen refueling process (HRP-s). Moreover, the imperfect compression of the liquid pump and different initial storage pressure are considered. Accordingly, the thermodynamic models of both processes were established, and the evolution of critical parameters was analyzed. Results indicate that the electricity consumption of the liquid pump rises along with the initial storage pressure increase. Compared to the HRP-s, HRP-as exhibits the ability to achieve electricity savings of up to 9.5% within the restrictions of pump capacity and total refueling time. Therefore, HRP-as provides an excellent option for liquid station design without extra expenditure.

CFD Model of Refuelling through the Entire HRS Equipment: The Start-Up Phase Simulations

Refuelling hydrogen-powered cars, buses, trucks, trains, ships, and planes is a technological challenge. The absence of contemporary CFD models of refuelling through the entire hydrogen refuelling station (HRS) equipment is one of the scientific bottlenecks. Detailed refuelling protocols for more than 10 kg of hydrogen, e.g., for heavy-duty vehicles, are absent. A thoroughly validated CFD model for simulations of the refuelling process through the entire equipment of the HRS is needed for protocols’ development. This study aims to numerically simulate the start-up phase of the refuelling procedure at HRS using the developed CFD model. The simulations through the entire HRS equipment are compared against unique experimental data of NREL and demonstrated agreement with measured pressure and temperature dynamics in onboard storage tanks during the start-up phase while having less than 5% deviation. The CFD model demonstrates excellent predictive capability and is time efficient. The simulation time of the start-up phase of 14 s duration is about 2 h on a 32-core CPU.

Modelling and operation strategy approaches for on-site Hydrogen Refuelling Stations

The number of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) in circulation has undergone a significant increase in recent years. This trend is foreseen to be stronger in the near future. In correlation with the FCEVs market increase, the hydrogen delivery infrastructure must be developed. With this aim, many countries have announced ambitious projects. For example, Spain has the objective of increasing the number of Hydrogen Refuelling Stations (HRS) with public access from three units in operation currently to about 150 by 2030. HRSs are complex systems with high variability in terms of layout design, size of components, operational strategy, hydrogen generation method or hydrogen generation location. This paper is focused on on-site HRS with electrolysis-based hydrogen production, which provides interesting advantages when renewable energy is utilized compared to off-site hydrogen production despite their complexity. To optimize HRS design and operation, a simulation model must be implemented. This paper describes a generic on-site HRS with electrolysis-based hydrogen production, a cascaded multi-tank storage system with multiple compressors, renewable energy sources, and multiple types of dispensing formats. A modelling approach of the layout is presented and tested with real-based parameters of an HRS currently under development, which is capable of producing 11.34 kg/h of green H2 with irradiation at 1000 W/m2. For the operation, an operational strategy is proposed. The modelled system is tested through several simulations. A sensitivity analysis of the effects of hydrogen demand and day-ahead hydrogen production objective on emissions, demand satisfaction and variable costs is performed. Simulation results show how the operational strategy has achieved service up to 310 FCEVs refuelling events of heavy duty and light duty FCEVs, bringing the total H2 sold up to almost 7200 H2kg in one month of winter. Additionally, considering variable costs of the energy from the utility grid, the model shows a profit in the range of 21–50 k€ for a daily demand of 60 H2kg/day and 100 H2kg/day, respectively. In terms of emissions, a year simulation with 60 H2kg/day of demand shows specific emissions in the production of H2 in Spain of 6.26 kgCO2eq/H2kg, which represents a greenhouse gas emission intensity of 52.26 gCO2eq/H2MJ.

Cryogenic cold energy recovery in liquid hydrogen refueling station with double-pipe heat exchanger

Recovering the cryogenic cold energy of liquid hydrogen (LH2) for precooling high-pressure hydrogen gas before refueling can significantly reduce the electricity and energy consumption of liquid hydrogen refueling stations. Existing methods, such as blending, require continuous cryogenic pump operation and are not suitable for various operating conditions. This work proposes a novel method to recover LH2 cryogenic cold energy using a double-pipe heat exchanger, which can decouple the compression and refueling process and meet the fluctuating demand for the cryogenic cold energy required by the hydrogen dispenser. The lumped parameter method and temperature partition method were adopted to design the heat exchanger structure. Numerical simulations of a 2D axisymmetric swirl model were done to verify the accuracy of the temperature partition method applied to high-pressure cryogenic hydrogen. Due to the low temperature of LH2, the secondary refrigerant dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) risks freezing. Comparing the outer wall surface temperature of the inner pipe with the CH2Cl2 freezing point temperature, the optimal anti-freezing condition is that the outer pipe nominal diameter should be selected as 0.032 m and CH2Cl2 mass flow rate should be at least 1.72 kg s−1. Recovery efficiency can reach over 75.39% without freezing.

Dynamic Modeling and Operation of a Green Hydrogen Fueling Station for Heavy-Duty Fuel Cell Vehicles

Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) have increased driving ranges and faster refueling times than battery electric vehicles (BEVs). The driving range of FCEVs can be increased by increasing the size, quantity or operating pressure of on-board hydrogen storage tanks at a lower weight and cost than increasing the size or number of Li-ion battery packs in BEVs. Ffast-refueling leads to less waiting time at the fueling station for high-utilization commercial vehicles. As a result, fuel cell system heavy-duty vehicles (HDV) are attracting more attention [1]. Currently, the lack of a hydrogen refueling infrastructure is limiting FCEV adoption. Since the driving routes of HDV trucks are more predictable, a small number of strategically located fueling stations could service pre-planned truck driving routes [2]. While hydrogen refueling protocols and fueling stations for light-duty vehicles (LDV) have been extensively studied [3,4,5], HDV trucks have different refueling protocols and operating conditions (e.g. mass holdup, pressure, refueling rate). To our knowledge, little work has been done on modeling hydrogen fueling stations for HDV trucks applications. With this motivation, a dynamic model of a truck stop coupled with green hydrogen production has been developed for fleet HDV trucks. At the truck stop, green hydrogen is produced from water electrolysis using solar photovoltaics (PV). Electrochemical hydrogen compression (EHC) is implemented for high-pressure hydrogen storage and dispensing. The fluctuations from solar PV and truck hydrogen demand are actively managed by installation of a spherical hydrogen storage vessel. The feasibility and flexibility of a truck stop using 100% renewable electricity and hydrogen will be discussed.A high-fidelity dynamic model of a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzer is developed for hydrogen production from PV electricity. A PEM electrochemical hydrogen compressor model is developed for gas pressurization with consideration of EHC temperature and water management. The green hydrogen is stored in a large spherical storage vessel to decouple the different PV power loads and HDV trucks hydrogen refueling demands. A modular system for HDV trucks refueling (nominal working pressure of 35 MPa) is designed and modeled with parallel multi-stage hydrogen compression and cascaded storage tanks. It was found that single modular system for FCEV refueling shows a service gap during hydrogen cascaded storage tank refilling, but a multiple modular structure can be easily expanded and provide uninterrupted hydrogen for FCEV refueling.The different hydrogen production and dispensing scenarios are implemented depending on the seasonal solar supply and varied HDV trucks demands. Hydrogen compression using mechanical compressor and electrochemical compressor are compared. The truck stop operation strategies are proposed based on the integrated process systems analysis of solar penetrations, hydrogen production and compression, and HDV trucks demand. The feasibility and flexibility of truck stop fueled by solar energy provide an insight for the transition to Net Zero Emission Transportation.[1] Cullen, D.A., Neyerlin, K.C., Ahluwalia, R.K., Mukundan, R., More, K.L., Borup, R.L., Weber, A.Z., Myers, D.J. and Kusoglu, A. (2021). New roads and challenges for fuel cells in heavy-duty transportation. Nature energy, 6(5), 462-474.[2] Cano, Z. P., Banham, D., Ye, S., Hintennach, A., Lu, J., Fowler, M., & Chen, Z. (2018). Batteries and fuel cells for emerging electric vehicle markets. Nature Energy, 3(4), 279-289.[3] Xiao, L., Chen, J., Wu, Y., Zhang, W., Ye, J., Shao, S., & Xie, J. (2021). Effects of pressure levels in three-cascade storage system on the overall energy consumption in the hydrogen refueling station. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 46(61), 31334-31345.[4] Rothuizen, E., Mérida, W., Rokni, M., & Wistoft-Ibsen, M. (2013). Optimization of hydrogen vehicle refueling via dynamic simulation. International journal of hydrogen energy, 38(11), 4221-4231.[5] Rothuizen, E., & Rokni, M. (2014). Optimization of the overall energy consumption in cascade fueling stations for hydrogen vehicles. International journal of hydrogen energy, 39(1), 582-592.

Hydrogen Storage Using Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs): A Computational Fluid Dynamic Study

The existing obstacles toward the usage of fossil fuels as the prime mover of the cars have improved the commercialization of the fuel cells and batteries to replace the internal combustion engines (ICEs). Although the required infrastructure is already established for the ICE cars, the low number of hydrogen refueling stations, low range of batteries, high charging time of the batteries, and the size/weight of the hydrogen tanks are the main concerns toward the transition from ICE cars to environmentally friendly alternatives.Fuel cells can be directly used in the vehicles as the prime mover (mobility applications), or they can be considered as the energy provider of the electric vehicle charging stations (stationary applications). Although the hydrogen storage is not being considered as an obstacle for the stationary applications, the required weight and size of the hydrogen tanks is a barrier to facilitate the usage of hydrogen in the automotive sector. Based on the given standards [1], it is possible to pressurize hydrogen up to 700 bars, hence reducing the size of the hydrogen tanks. This solution has been already used in the development of the Toyota Mirai, which has 114kW/155hp power and 500km range with the fuel consumption of 0.76 kg H2/100km [2]. Similarly, Honda Clarity could reach the range of 650km with 5kg of hydrogen tank capacity at the rated power of 130kW/ 176hp [3]. Although pressurizing the hydrogen is a feasible solution, it will demand further costs and safety procedures to reach the 700 bars. In other words, the best solution would be reaching the same driving range without pressurizing the hydrogen.In this regard, Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) can be used to increase the hydrogen adsorption in the hydrogen tank due to higher gravimetric storage density. Among different types of MOFs, the MOF-5 has shown promising results to increase the hydrogen storage up to wt. 10% absolute at 70 bar and 77K. It is believed that the low thermal conductivity of the MOF-5 can reduce the performance of the system when rapid gas uptake and release is required [4]. Although there have been studies to evaluate the overall possibilities of using MOF-5 to improve the adsorption of hydrogen in the hydrogen tanks, there is not a comprehensive study to simulate and characterize the changes in the hydrogen adsorption once the hydrogen tanks are filled with different types of MOFs.The goal of this study is to use the computational fluid dynamic methodologies to model a hydrogen tank filled with MOFs and to analyze the hydrogen adsorption by the changes in the time. This study can a step toward improving the design of the hydrogen tanks, which will facilitate the hydrogen storage at low pressures close to the ambient temperatures. This study can be also a good start to find the right type of MOF to be used in the hydrogen tanks to have the highest possible hydrogen adsorption. The developed model is based on mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations of the adsorbent-adsorbate system composed of gaseous and adsorbed hydrogen, adsorbent bed and tank wall. It is noteworthy to mention that the adsorption process is based on the modified Dubinin-Astakov (D-A) adsorption isotherm model. Keywords : Hydrogen Storage; Metal Organic Frameworks; Adsorption; Fuel cells. Figure 1

Modern Hydrogen Technologies in the Face of Climate Change—Analysis of Strategy and Development in Polish Conditions

The energy production market based on hydrogen technologies is an innovative solution that will allow the industry to achieve climate neutrality in the future in Poland and in the world. The paper presents the idea of using hydrogen as a modern energy carrier, and devices that, in cooperation with renewable energy sources, produce the so-called green hydrogen and the applicable legal acts that allow for the implementation of the new technology were analyzed. Energy transformation is inevitable, and according to reports on good practices in European Union countries, hydrogen and the hydrogen value chain (production, transport and transmission, storage, use in transport, and energy) have wide potential. Thanks to joint projects and subsidies from the EU, initiatives supporting hydrogen technologies are created, such as hydrogen clusters and hydrogen valleys, and EU and national strategic programs set the main goals. Poland is one of the leaders in hydrogen production both in the world and in Europe. Domestic tycoons from the energy, refining, and chemical industries are involved in the projects. Eight hydrogen valleys that have recently been created in Poland successfully implement the assumptions of the “Polish Hydrogen Strategy until 2030 with a perspective until 2040” and “Energy Policy of Poland until 2040”, which are in line with the assumptions of the most important legal acts of the EU, including the European Union’s energy and climate policy, the Green Deal, and the Fit for 55 Package. The review of the analysis of the development of hydrogen technologies in Poland shows that Poland does not differ from other European countries. As part of the assumptions of the European Hydrogen Strategy and the trend related to the management of energy surpluses, electrolyzers with a capacity of at least 6 GW will be installed in Poland in 2020–2024. It is also assumed that in the next phase, planned for 2025–2030, hydrogen will be a carrier in the energy system in Poland. Poland, as a member of the EU, is the creator of documents that take into account the assumptions of the European Union Commission and systematically implement the assumed goals. The strategy of activities supporting the development of hydrogen technologies in Poland and the value chain includes very extensive activities related to, among others, obtaining hydrogen, using hydrogen in transport, energy, and industry, developing human resources for the new economy, supporting the activities of hydrogen valley stakeholders, building hydrogen refueling stations, and cooperation among Poland, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic as part of the HydrogenEagle project.

Risk-constrained day-ahead planning of an energy hub integrated with the on-site hydrogen fueling station and active battery swapping infrastructure considering high level of renewable energies and load redistribution

The presence of green technologies has increased in recent years due to their efficiency and capability to mitigate environmental issues. This paper evaluates the day-ahead planning of an energy hub integrated with the on-site hydrogen fueling station and active battery swapping infrastructure considering the high level of renewable energies. According to the indeterminate nature of energy systems, the power of wind and solar units, state of vehicles in stations, local loads and price of markets are modeled by diffident scenarios and then, the conditional value-at-risk metric is utilized to measure the risk of decisions. The influence of load redistribution on electrical, heating and cooling loads is also examined and a sensitivity analysis is proposed to assess the role of various parameters on the objective function. The results indicate that the risk-averse strategy decreases profit for a specific conservatism level by 5.68 % to improve the robustness against uncertainties; however, lower risks can be achieved by changing the risk control index. The simulations demonstrate that the swapping station acts as a bulk storage, especially considering the high penetration of renewable resources. In addition, load redistribution has a positive effect, where the load profile modification equal to 10 % increases profit by 4.55 %.

Dynamic response characteristics and damage modes of multifunctional layered hydrogen storage vessels under impact loads

Hydrogen storage vessels in hydrogen refueling stations are densely arranged, so high-speed fragments generated by explosion accidents may endanger adjacent vessels. It is of great significance to explore the dynamic responses and damage modes of hydrogen storage vessels under impact loads to promote the intrinsic safety development of hydrogen storage vessels. In this paper, a finite element analysis model is developed for simulating the dynamic responses of vessels under the impact of fragments. The influences of the number of winding layers, impact velocity, fragment mass, and fragment shape are investigated. The results show that fragment impact is a kind of local damage behavior with two typical stages of hitting and rebounding. The impact resistance of vessels increases with the number of winding layers. Impact velocity and fragment mass are positively related to deformation and damage. Conical fragments have stronger damage abilities, while spherical fragments cause greater deformation.