Hydrogen Production Capacity Research Articles

System development and assessment for green hydrogen generation and blending with natural gas

In this study, an integrated system is designed and studied to produce renewable (green) hydrogen and blend it with natural gas potentially available in the Black Sea for countrywide utilization, and a case study is, in this regard, considered for the city of Zonguldak in Turkey. To utilize the natural gas reserves in a more environmentally friendly and efficient manner, blending it with the addition of 20% hydrogen by volume is the prime focus of this study. For this purpose, hydrogen production capacities from renewable sources of energy, namely wind, solar and wave, are calculated and found out as 1432 kg, 174,210 kg, and 1257 kg, respectively. The effects of hydrogen content addition on the blend gas consumption and the lifetime of proven reserves are investigated. With the addition of 20% hydrogen by volume, the annual blend gas consumption increases from 46.55 billion cubic meters (Bm3) to 54.11 Bm3, while the consumption of natural gas decreases from 46.55 Bm3 to 43.29 Bm3. Thus, the life span increases from 11.6 years to 12.5 years, respectively. The CO and CO2 emissions potentially released after the combustion decrease from 0.05 g/day and 32% to 0.02 g/day and 28% when the hydrogen content in the blend increases from 5% to 20%, accordingly. Furthermore, NOx emissions increase from 4.08 g/day to 7.54 g/day in the exhaust gas when the hydrogen addition is changed from 5% to 20% in the blend.

When Bigger Is Not Greener: Ensuring the Sustainability of Power-to-Gas Hydrogen on a National Scale.

As the prices of photovoltaics and wind turbines continue to decrease, more renewable electricity-generating capacity is installed globally. While this is considered an integral part of a sustainable energy future by many nations, it also poses a significant strain on current electricity grids due to the inherent output variability of renewable electricity. This work addresses the challenge of renewable electricity surplus (RES) utilization with target-scaling of centralized power-to-gas (PtG) hydrogen production. Using the Republic of Korea as a case study, due to its ambitious plan of 2030 green hydrogen production capacity of 0.97 million tons year-1, we combine predictions of future, season-averaged RES with a detailed conceptual process simulation for green H2 production via polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis combined with a desalination plant in six distinct scale cases (0.5-8.5 GW). It is demonstrated that at scales of 0.5 to 1.75 GW the RES is optimally utilized, and PtG hydrogen can therefore outperform conventional hydrogen production both environmentally (650-2210 Mton CO2 not emitted per year) and economically (16-30% levelized cost reduction). Beyond these scales, the PtG benefits sharply drop, and thus it is answered how much of the planned green hydrogen target can realistically be "green" if produced domestically on an industrial scale.

Probing Electronic and Structural Transformations during Thermal Reduction of the Promising Water Splitting Perovskite BaCe0.25Mn0.75O3

In this report, we investigate the thermal reduction of the octahedral perovskite BaCe0.25Mn0.75O3 (BCM) using in situ electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) in an aberration-corrected transmission electron microscope (TEM). The 12R-polytype of BCM is known to demonstrate high solar thermochemical hydrogen production capacity. In situ EELS measurements show that Mn is the active redox cation in BCM, undergoing thermal reduction from Mn4+ to Mn3+ during heating to 700 °C inside the TEM under a high vacuum. The progressive reduction of Mn4+ during oxygen vacancy (Ov) formation was monitored as a function of temperature. Additionally, atomic-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy identified two different types of twin boundaries present in the oxidized and reduced form of 12R-BCM, respectively. These two types of twin boundaries were shown, via computational modeling, to modulate the site-specific Ov formation energies in 12R-BCM. It is concluded that these types of atomic defects provide sites more energetically favorable for Ov formation during thermal reduction.

Designing PEM Electrolysis-Based Hydrogen Reactors In The Area of Baron Beach Of Yogyakarta, Indonesia

This study aimed to design a PEM electrolysis-based hydrogen reactor and the potential for hydrogen production at Baron Beach, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta. Based on the calculation done at the initial process, the electrical energy potentially generated from renewable energy, such as wind, waves, and solar, reached 10.7 MW. This study also investigated the effect of reactor operating temperature on reactor efficiency and hydrogen production. A numerical thermodynamic approach was applied in the design process. The model, validated by laboratory experiments by other institutions, was in good agreement with previous research with an error value of 13%. The temperature range was dynamically limited from 30 to 80°C. The optimum operating conditions occurred when the temperature was set at 80 °C with a reactor efficiency, a water consumption rate, and a hydrogen production capacity of 76.3%, 2.817 kg/hour, and 250.42 kg/hour, respectively. The raw material, namely seawater, was processed using the reverse osmosis method. Ten reactors (with 13 cells per reactor) were installed in parallel.

Fabrication of Mn-Doped SrTiO3/Carbon Fiber with Oxygen Vacancy for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution.

With carbon fiber, it is difficult to load semiconductor photocatalysts and easy to shed off thanks to its smooth surface and few active groups, which has always been a problem in the synthesis of photocatalysts. In the study, SrTiO3 nanoparticles were loaded onto the Tencel fibers using the solvothermal method, and then the Tencel fibers were carbonized at a high temperature under the condition of inert gas to form carbon fibers, thus SrTiO3@CF photocatalytic composite materials with solid core shell structure were prepared. Meanwhile, Mn ions were added into the SrTiO3 precursor reagent in the solvothermal experiment to prepare Mn-doped Mn-SrTiO3@CF photocatalytic composite material. XPS and EPR tests showed that the prepared Mn-SrTiO3@CF photocatalytic composite was rich in oxygen vacancies. The existence of these oxygen vacancies formed oxygen defect states (VOs) below the conduction band, which constituted the capture center of photogenerated electrons and significantly improved the photocatalytic activity. The photocatalytic hydrogen experimental results showed that the photocatalytic hydrogen production capacity of Mn-SrTiO3@CF composite material with 5% Mn-doped was six times that of the SrTiO3@CF material, and the doping of Mn ions not only promoted the red shift of the light absorption boundary and the extension to visible light, but also improved the separation and migration efficiency of photocarriers. In the paper, the preparation method solves the difficulty of loading photocatalysts on CF and provides a new design method for the recycling of catalysts, and we improve the hydrogen production performance of photocatalysts by Mn-doped modification and the introduction of oxygen vacancies, which provides a theoretical method for the practical application of hydrogen energy.

Performance evaluation of rare earth (La, Ce and Y) modified CoFe2O4 oxygen carriers in chemical looping hydrogen generation from hydrogen-rich syngas

In this study, chemical looping cascade coupling hydrogen generation (CL-CCHG) process was proposed to achieve conversion from multi-component hydrogen-rich syngas to high purity hydrogen. CLHG experiments using simulated methane reforming gas (MRG, 64.89 % H2 + 24.47 % CO + 7.18 % CO2 + 3.46 % CH4) were carried out on a self-built fixed bed reactor to verify the feasibility of this process, and rare earth (La, Ce and Y) modified CoFe2O4 was selected as oxygen carriers. The crystal structure, surface morphology and properties, and reactivity of oxygen carriers were characterized by various analytical methods (e.g., XRD, SEM-EDS, BET, XPS, TPR). The fixed bed experimental results exhibited that rare earth modification significantly improved the fuel conversion capacity, carbon capture efficiency and hydrogen production capacity of CoFe2O4, with La0.1-CoFe possessing the highest overall fuel conversion rate (85.97 %) and hydrogen recovery efficiency (89.46 %) at 750 °C. This was attributed to the enhanced pore structure, surface properties and reduction performance of oxygen carriers after the rare earth modification. Moreover, experimental results and HSC thermodynamic data demonstrated that the reducing components showed different competing effects in the temperature range examined (650–850 °C). The high temperatures favored the conversion of low concentrations CH4 in MRG, but this would inhibit the consumption of CO and H2. The reduced La0.1-CoFe oxygen carrier achieved the best hydrogen production intensity at 800 °C (302.91 vs 335.15 mL H2·g−1 OC) with hydrogen recovery efficiency of 90.38 %. Finally, by adjusting the MRG flow rate, 94.36 % carbon capture efficiency was obtained, achieving efficient recovery of high purity hydrogen (>99.5 %) along with carbon capture.

Investigation of the thermodynamic analysis of solar Energy-Based multigeneration plant for sustainable multigeneration

Renewable energy-based multigeneration plants are a huge potential to tackle environmental problems and also to the passing of the carbon-free future. The main goal of the present research is to design and examine the combined cycle motivated by solar energy for multigeneration which is power, hydrogen, ammonia, and freshwater generation. The innovative design multigeneration system is made up of a parabolic trough solar collector, a steam Rankine cycle with high and low-pressure turbines, a transcritical Rankine cycle with a carbon-dioxide fluid, a desalination part, a Proton Exchange Membrane electrolysis, and an ammonia reactor. A comprehensive thermodynamic analysis, environmental impact assessment, and exergo-environmental analysis are addressed to determine the performance and carbon dioxide emission reduction of the overall plant. Furthermore, in this planned research, a thorough parametric evaluation is performed to define how the variation of some significant parameters (e.g., ambient temperature, solar radiation, and collector outlet temperature) has an impact on the cycle’s efficiency and useful outputs. The findings of the research analysis indicated that the total net power and hydrogen production capacities are 1654 kW and 0.0025 kgs-1. The irreversibility rate is determined as 7047 kW and the parabolic trough solar collector has the uppermost rate among the components. Furthermore, energetic and exergetic performances of the modeled cycle are computed as 29.04% and 27.43%, respectively. Finally, freshwater and ammonia production rates are determined as 1.182 kgs-1 and 0.004842 kgs-1, respectively.

Robust Mesh-type structured CuFeMg/γ-Al2O3/Al catalyst for methanol steam reforming in microreactors

Utilizing a compact, efficient and fast-response reactor for on-site reforming of liquid methanol is an effective method to solve the storage and transportation problems of hydrogen. In this paper, a mesh-type structured CuFeMg/γ-Al2O3/Al catalyst with strong bonding force was prepared by anodic oxidation method, and its intrinsic catalytic activity, hydrogen production capacity and start-up performance were compared with commercial granular catalyst in a plate microreactor. The results showed that although the mesh-type structured catalyst displayed lower intrinsic activity, it exhibited higher methanol conversion, which was because of the enhanced mass transfer ability. Overall, for the mesh-type structured catalyst, 27.1% higher hydrogen production capacity per unit volume was achieved when methanol conversion was 90%, and the reactor start-up time was reduced by 16.1% owing to the high thermal conductivity of the aluminum substrate. Moreover, the mesh-type structured catalyst also showed excellent stability in 160 h test.

Introduction and preliminary testing of a 5 m3/h hydrogen production facility by Iodine–Sulfur thermochemical process

The Iodine–Sulfur (IS) or Sulfur–Iodine (SI) thermochemical water-splitting cycle is considered as one of the most promising hydrogen production methods through thermal chemical cycle process with heat. This paper introduces the new built hydrogen production testing facility of IS process made by industrial structural material (IS-5m3 facility). The TC4, Hastelloy C276 and SiC materials were chosen in this pilot-scale testing facility for different modules. The new designed structure of Bunsen reactor, HI decomposer and H2SO4 decomposer are described particularly, and the corresponding individual tests are successfully executed to verify the function of each section. Based on testing, a preliminary continuous experimental run was carried out in September of 2021 for about 4 h with the hydrogen production capacity of 80 L/h. The problems such as slight corrosion, lower hydrogen gas yield and shorter operation time faced in this experiment will be modified in the near future. A longer time operation and higher H2 production rate test will be carried out soon.

Design and modeling of a multigeneration system driven by waste heat of a marine diesel engine

In this study, a novel marine diesel engine waste heat recovery layout is designed and thermodynamically analyzed for hydrogen production, electricity generation, water desalination, space heating, and cooling purposes. The integrated system proposed in this study utilizes waste heat from a marine diesel engine to charge an organic Rankine and an absorption refrigeration cycle. The condenser of the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) provides the heat for the single stage flash distillation unit (FDU) process, which uses seawater as the feedwater. A portion of the produced freshwater is used to supply the Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) electrolyzer array. This study aims to store the excess desalinated water in ballast tanks after an Ultraviolet (UV) treatment. Therefore it is expected to preclude the damage of ballast water discharge on marine fauna. The integrated system's thermodynamic analysis is performed using the Engineering Equation Solver software package. All system components are subjected to performance assessments based on their energy and exergy efficiencies. Additionally, the capacities for power generation, freshwater production, hydrogen production, and cooling are determined. A parametric study is conducted to evaluate the impacts of operating conditions on the overall system. The system's overall energy and exergy efficiencies are calculated as 25% and 13%, respectively, where the hydrogen production, power generation, and freshwater production capacities are 306.8 kg/day, 659 kW, and 0.536 kg/s, respectively. Coefficient of Performance (COP) of the absorption refrigeration cycle is calculated as 0.41.

Effect of Ammoniated Fiber Explosion Combined with H2O2 Pretreatment on the Hydrogen Production Capacity of Herbaceous and Woody Waste.

An appropriate pretreatment process is an important part of the preparation of biomass energy from agricultural and forestry waste. Compared to physical and chemical pretreatments alone, the combined ammoniated fiber explosion (AFEX) + hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) pretreatment process can significantly improve the lignin degradation rate and saccharification efficiency, thus improving the hydrogen production capacity during medium-temperature dark fermentation. This study showed that the combined pretreatment increased the saccharification efficiency of herbaceous, hardwood, and softwood biomass by 58.7, 39.5, and 20.6% and the corresponding gas production reached 145.49, 80.75, and 57.52 mL/g, respectively. In addition, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy showed that AFEX + H2O2 disrupted the structure of the feedstock and was more favorable for lignin removal. Soluble metabolites indicated that AFEX + H2O2 pretreatment enhanced the butyrate metabolic pathway of the substrate and biohydrogen generation and increased the levels of extracellular polymers and microbial community structure.

Thermo-economic optimization of a hydrogen storage structure using liquid natural gas regasification and molten carbonate fuel cell

Liquid natural gas (LNG) regasification and fuel cells can be employed to supply the required precooling and electrical power for hydrogen liquefaction, respectively. Such an approach helps reduce the process complexity and the number of equipment, total costs, and carbon footprints, and enhance the controllability of the process. This paper proposes an integrated structure for hydrogen liquefaction and storage by employing the LNG regasification process for precooling and four multi-component refrigerant cycles for liquefaction. Molten carbonate fuel cells, gas turbines power cycles, the two-stage organic Rankine cycle, and the carbon dioxide power cycle are used for supplying the electrical power. A liquid hydrogen production capacity of 1766 kmol/h and 1576.7 MW electrical power generation are attained in this integrated process. The coefficient of performance, specific energy consumption, and specific power consumption of the integrated structure are calculated to be 0.175, 4.772 kWh/kgLH2, and 3.872 kWh/kgLH2, respectively. The exergy efficiency of 83.03% and the exergy destruction of 47.87 MW are obtained based on the exergy analysis. The maximum shares of exergy destruction are attributed to the heat exchangers, gas turbines, and fuel cells with the magnitudes of 45.43%, 24.75%, and 10.93%, respectively. The prime cost of product and rate of return are calculated to be 0.0840 US$/kWh and 24.02%, respectively. According to the sensitivity analysis, it is found that increasing the molar fraction of helium in the multi-component refrigerant cycle from 81.31% to 93.61% leads to a reduction in the net power production (151.2 MW) and total exergy efficiency (81.39%) of the proposed process. Using the multi-objective genetic algorithm method, the total exergy efficiency and the rate of return are optimized to be 86.32% and 29.66%, respectively.

Surfactant assisted microwave irradiation pretreatment of corncob: Effect on hydrogen production capacity, energy consumption and physiochemical structure

The combination pretreatment strategy is an effective way to intensify photo-fermentative biohydrogen production (PFHP) process. In this study, the synergistic effects of microwave irradiation and surfactants on the hydrogen production performance, energy analysis and structural characteristics was evaluated. Results revealed that hydrogen production performance was improved after microwave irradiation pretreatment (MIP) and surfactants assisted microwave irradiation pretreatment (SMIP). SMIP group had a higher cumulative hydrogen yield (CHY) of 367.87 ± 6.481 mL compared with control group (223.26 ± 4.329 mL) and MIP group (303.66 ± 3.366 mL), which was an increase of 36.01% and 64.77%, respectively. Energy evaluation analysis showed that the energy ratio of SMIP (0.49) was higher than that of MIP (0.37) in the PFHP system, therefore, SMIP can save more energy. After SMIP, the corncob lignocellulose structure was greatly damaged, which was verified by SEM, FTIR, XRD and XPS analyses.

Predication of the sensitivity of a novel daily triple-periodic solar-based electricity/hydrogen cogeneration system with storage units: Dual parametric analysis and NSGA-II optimization

Solar systems are vital toward green cities; however, owing to their higher irreversibilities, it is important to modify the previous configurations. Hence, this study is motivated to design a novel solar-based cogeneration system utilizing different energy storage equipment arranged to diminish the irreversibilities innovatively. Therefore, the suggested system producing electricity and hydrogen is planned in a daily triple-periodic framework employing a heliostat field with thermal energy storage tanks using high-temperature molten salt. Meanwhile, a gas turbine cycle, an organic Rankine cycle, a low-temperature electrolyzer, and a compressed air energy storage are efficiently combined. As an assumption, the unsteady condition of solar power is divided into three different steady operational modes, namely storing, charging, and discharging. The methods of sole and dual parametric analyses and non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II for multi-objective optimization are applied. It is inferred that the system has the potential to increase the performance of previous similar systems. According to the results, direct normal irradiation as the effective parameter can increase the electricity generation capacity by 2.1 times. Besides, the optimum electricity and hydrogen production capacities (objective functions) are 6.58 MW and 690 kg/h leading to the optimum round-trip and exergetic round-trip efficiencies of 41.0% and 25.0, respectively.

Effects of solid particle aspect ratio on the performance of hydrogen production by electrolyzed water

Hydrogen energy has become one of the important directions of future energy development. The hydrogen produced by electrolyzed water is regarded as "green hydrogen", is clean and pollution-free, and is considered the ultimate direction of hydrogen production. If the waste heat of solid particles can be used as the energy required for the water electrolysis process, the cost of "green hydrogen" will be much lower than that of fossil fuel hydrogen production. In order to study the effect of particle structure size on hydrogen production capacity, the heat transfer model of the ellipsoidal particles packed bed with single-vacancy was constructed. Further, the temperature, the apparent thermal resistance, the average heat flux, and the vacancy affects area were studied. With the increase of the particle aspect ratio, the apparent thermal resistance decreases, the average heat flux increase, and hydrogen production increases. When the particle aspect ratio increases from 0.5 to 2.0, the average heat flux of the packed bed with single-vacancy increases from 23.13 kW/m2 to 28.87 kW/m2, and the apparent thermal resistance decreases from 23.33 K/W to 9.27 K/W. As the particle aspect ratio increases, the area affected by single-vacancy increases, the hindering effect of the vacancy on the heat flow increases.

Kinetic/thermodynamic study on improved hydrolysis hydrogen generation of Mg-doped bismuth series oxysalt

<p indent="0mm">Study of high efficiency hydrogen production materials has attracted many researchers’ attention. Mg-based hydrogen production material has the advantages of wide sources, mild reaction, simple process, safety control, and high hydrogen production capacity. In this article, Mg was doped with bismuth series oxysalt Bi_{<italic>x</italic>}M_{<italic>y</italic>}O_{<italic>z</italic>} (M = Ti, V, Cr, Mo, W) by high energy ball milling method to improve the performance of hydrolytic hydrogen generation for the first time. It was found that Bi₂MoO₆/CNTs enhanced the hydrogen generation performance of Mg and increased the initial hydrogen generation rate. The optimal hydrogen generation rate increased to <sc>2172.4 mL g⁻¹ min⁻¹,</sc> and the related activation energy decreased to <sc>23.6 kJ mol⁻¹.</sc> Density functional theory (DFT) calculation found that doped Bi atom enhanced the adsorption of H₂O on Mg and reduced the adsorption of H atom by changing the local charge distribution, thus promoting the hydrolysis reaction.

Modular modeling method and power supply capability evaluation for integrated hydrogen production stations of DC systems

Low-voltage DC distribution system has many advantages, such as facilitating the access of DC loads and distributed energies and improving the network’s stability. It has become a new idea for integrated hydrogen production stations. Power supply capacity and small-signal stability are important indexes to evaluate a low-voltage DC integrated system. Based on the master–slave control mode, this paper selects the typical star structure as the research object, constructs the system transfer function through the scalable modular modeling method, and further evaluates the impact of the high-order DC hydrogen production station integrated system on the hydrogen production capacity under the changes of the line length and master station position. The results show that the hydrogen production capacity of the system decreases gradually with the main station moving from side to inside. Finally, a practical example is analyzed by MATLAB/Simulink simulation to verify the accuracy of the theory. This study can provide an effective theoretical method for the structure optimization and integrated parameter design of low-voltage DC system.

Modeling and comprehensive analysis of food waste gasification process for hydrogen production

To realize the utilization of food waste, a novel hydrogen production process for food waste gasification is proposed in this study, which converts food waste into hydrogen. Using Aspen Plus, the effects of gasification temperature and regional differences on the hydrogen production capacity were studied. It was found that the hydrogen capacity was improved by increasing temperature, while the regional effect was not significant. Based on the simulation results, a comprehensive evaluation of the hydrogen production process was conducted by analyzing exergy efficiency, economic benefits, and environmental costs to further explore the feasibility of the process. The exergy results show that the total exergy efficiency of this process is 64.86%, indicating a high energy conversion efficiency. From the economic perspective and based on economic indicators such as material consumption, production cost, and total capital investment, the total capital investment of the process is 1.61×107 USD. Furthermore, the potential for environmental protection is evaluated by analyzing the global warming and acidification potentials of the hydrogen production process. The hydrogen production capacity of the food waste-to-H2 process is 1.2 t/h H2, indicating a substantial hydrogen yield. This process can accelerate the implementation of the carbon neutrality goal to a certain extent.

Sustainable hydrogen manufacturing via renewable-integrated intensified process for refueling stations

The widescale consumer adoption of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs) is currently hindered by the high cost of small-scale hydrogen generation and the lack of extensive hydrogen refueling infrastructure. Natural gas-based hydrogen is cheaper when produced in large volumes but is also associated with high CO2 emissions. To counter these challenges, we propose a hybrid approach where both natural gas and renewables are integrated in a synergistic manner using a dynamic process intensification technology that can be deployed on-site for meeting local demands of refueling stations. The technology is based on sorption enhanced steam methane reforming (SE-SMR) that utilizes a combination of reaction with in-situCO2 adsorption for enhancing process modularity, productivity and efficiency thereby outperforming conventional SMR at small scale. We develop a mixed integer linear programming (MILP)-based optimization framework for simultaneous design and scheduling of the SE-SMR process. The simultaneous optimization provides a synergistic combination whereby the renewables allow sustainable hydrogen manufacturing and the dynamic SE-SMR allows optimal use of the intermittency of the renewables. The U.S. nationwide analysis indicates that for futuristic renewable prices and a hydrogen production capacity of 2 ton/day, hydrogen can be produced at 50% less cost compared to the current cost of small-scale hydrogen generation. The city-wise analysis with varying hydrogen demand shows that even with just 5% HFCEV market penetration level, hydrogen production cost less than $3/kg can be obtained at small scales across the United States with even cheaper hydrogen for large cities.

Integrating System and Operator Perspectives for the Evaluation of Power-to-Gas Plants in the Future German Energy System

In which way, and in which sectors, will renewable energy be integrated in the German Energy System by 2030, 2040, and 2050? How can the resulting energy system be characterised following a −95% greenhouse gas emission reduction scenario? Which role will hydrogen play? To address these research questions, techno-economic energy system modelling was performed. Evaluation of the resulting operation of energy technologies was carried out from a system and a business point of view. Special consideration of gas technologies, such as hydrogen production, transport, and storage, was taken as a large-scale and long-term energy storage option and key enabler for the decarbonisation of the non-electric sectors. The broad set of results gives insight into the entangled interactions of the future energy technology portfolio and its operation within a coupled energy system. Amongst other energy demands, CO2 emissions, hydrogen production, and future power plant capacities are presented. One main conclusion is that integrating the first elements of a large-scale hydrogen infrastructure into the German energy system, already, by 2030 is necessary for ensuring the supply of upscaling demands across all sectors. Within the regulatory regime of 2020, it seems that this decision may come too late, which jeopardises the achievement of transition targets within the horizon 2050.