Hydration Time Research Articles

Lipid loss and compositional change during preparation of liposomes by common biophysical methods.

Liposomes are widely used as model lipid membrane platforms in many fields, ranging from basic biophysical studies to drug delivery and biotechnology applications. Various methods exist to prepare liposomes, but common procedures include thin-film hydration followed by extrusion, freeze-thaw, and/or sonication. These procedures have the potential to produce liposomes at specific concentrations and membrane compositions, and researchers often assume that the concentration and composition of their liposomes are similar to, if not identical, to what would be expected if no lipid loss occurred during preparation. However, lipid loss and concomitant biasing of lipid composition can in principle occur at any preparation step due to nonideal mixing, lipid-surface interactions, etc. Here, we report a straightforward method using HPLC-ELSD to quantify the lipid concentration and membrane composition of liposomes, and apply that method to study the preparation of simple POPC/cholesterol liposomes. We examine many common steps in liposome formation, including vortexing during re-suspension, hydration of the lipid film, extrusion, freeze-thaw, sonication, and the percentage of cholesterol in the starting mixture. We found that the resuspension step can play an outsized role in determining the overall lipid loss (up to ~50% under seemingly rigorous procedures). The extrusion step yielded smaller lipid losses (~10-20%). Freeze-thaw and sonication could both be employed to improve lipid yields. Hydration times up to 60 minutes and increasing cholesterol concentrations up to 50 mole% had little influence on lipid recovery. Fortunately, even conditions with large lipid loss did not substantially influence the target membrane composition more than ~5% under the conditions we tested. From our results, we identify best practices for producing maximum levels of lipid recovery and minimal changes to lipid composition during liposome preparation protocols. We expect our results can be leveraged for improved preparation of model membranes by researchers in many fields.

IMPACT OF ALUMINOSILICATE WASTES ON THE HYDRATION, PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT PASTE

The impact of aluminosilicate wastes (spent fluid catalytic cracking catalyst from oil companies and metakaolin containing waste from the production of expanded glass granules) on the hydration and compressive strength of the cement paste was analysed when a proportion of cement was replaced by one waste material or two waste materials. The article presents results of X-ray diffraction and thermal analysis of hardened cement pastes. It was determined that the spent catalytic cracking catalyst accelerates cement hydration because of its high surface area and pozzolanic activity; and metakaolin containing waste has a retarding effect. X-ray diffraction and thermal analysis showed that the specimens with metakaolin containing waste had the lowest amount of portlandite, and the compressive strength of these specimens was similar to that of the control specimens when a superplasticizer was used. It was found that a mix of aluminosilicate wastes has a different effect on cement hydration and makes it possible to adjust the hydration time of the binder within a certain interval.

IMPACT OF ALUMINOSILICATE WASTES ON THE HYDRATION, PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT PASTE

The impact of aluminosilicate wastes (spent fluid catalytic cracking catalyst from oil companies and metakaolin containing waste from the production of expanded glass granules) on the hydration and compressive strength of the cement paste was analysed when a proportion of cement was replaced by one waste material or two waste materials. The article presents results of X-ray diffraction and thermal analysis of hardened cement pastes. It was determined that the spent catalytic cracking catalyst accelerates cement hydration because of its high surface area and pozzolanic activity; and metakaolin containing waste has a retarding effect. X-ray diffraction and thermal analysis showed that the specimens with metakaolin containing waste had the lowest amount of portlandite, and the compressive strength of these specimens was similar to that of the control specimens when a superplasticizer was used. It was found that a mix of aluminosilicate wastes has a different effect on cement hydration and makes it possible to adjust the hydration time of the binder within a certain interval.

Development of conditions for obtaining oil from sunflower oil hydration waste

The object of the study is the process of treatment of sunflower phosphatide concentrate using sodium chloride solution. Hydration is a stage of oil refining. The waste of the process is a phosphatide concentrate, the disposal of which is dangerous to the environment. The concentrate contains valuable components – oil and phosphatides. An important task is to separate these components for effective use in various industries. The process of extracting oil from phosphatide concentrate by hydration in the presence of sodium chloride solution was investigated. The influence of the concentrate treatment conditions on the oil yield was determined. A sample of concentrate according to SOU 15.4-37-212:2004 (CAS 3436-44-0) was used: mass fraction of moisture and volatile substances – 2.8 %, mass fraction of phosphatides – 41.5 %. The concentrate was treated with sodium chloride solution with a concentration of (5–20) %. The hydration time was 25 min., the temperature was 45 °C, and the mass ratio of the sodium chloride solution to the concentrate was 1:1. Conditions for the concentrate treatment were determined: the concentration of sodium chloride solution was 15 %, settling time was 5 hours. At the same time, the yield of oil was 86.9 %. The parameters of the extracted oil were determined: acid value 2.8 mg KOH/g, peroxide value 3.2 ½ O mmol/kg, mass fraction of moisture and volatile substances 0.12 %. According to these indicators, the extracted oil corresponds to first-grade unrefined unfrozen sunflower oil according to DSTU 4492. The mass fraction of phosphorus-containing substances in terms of stearooleolecithin was 1.7 %, which slightly exceeds the standard value. The research results make it possible to process hydration waste and obtain oil, which is a raw material for the products of many industries. This will help solve the problem of disposal of environmentally hazardous waste and improve the state of the environment

Emerging approaches to improve barley malt processing and quality: Ultrasound-assisted hydration and ethanol pre-treatment to drying

This work aimed to evaluate how two emerging technologies impact the malting process and the quality of barley malt: ultrasound-assisted hydration and ethanol pre-treatment to drying. All three steps of malting (hydration, germination, and drying), as well as the resulting malt's quality indicators, were evaluated. Conventional and ultrasound-assisted (25 kHz; 91 W/L, 20 °C) hydration were carried out, followed by germination, ethanol (99.5%) pre-treatment (immersion 30 min, 25 °C), and convective drying (50 °C, 1 m/s). Texture analysis demonstrated that the different stages of the malting process modify the structure and composition by increasing or decreasing the compression force in the grain. The ultrasound-assisted hydration improved the second hydration stage, where hydration resistances were greater, reducing hydration time by 38%; moreover, ultrasound accelerated the germination step with root growth 1.17 times greater. During drying, ultrasound-assisted hydration followed by ethanol pre-treatment, reduced drying time by 38.5% (barley) and 17.8% (malt). Both evaluated technologies, therefore, intensify the malting process. In addition, it was demonstrated that their use increased the alpha (9%) and beta-amylase (7%) activity in malt and modified paste and gel-forming properties of barley and malt flours. Therefore, these results suggest that the use of ultrasound improved hydration and germination processes, and ethanol pre-treatment accelerated the drying process because of improved mass transfer, both without negative impact on malt quality.

Fractal evolution model of proton spatial distribution in low water/binder cement-based composites (LW/B-CC) during early-age hydration process

This study establishes the fractal evolution model of proton spatial distribution in low water/binder cement-based composites (LW/B-CC) based on fractal theory and low field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF NMR) technology. The results show that the fractal evolution process of gel water, capillary water and surface water distributions in LW/B-CC presents three stages: the first 4–6 h after the beginning of hydration, 4–6 h to 12 h, and 12 h to long-term stage. In the first and second stages, the fractal dimensions of gel and capillary water increase linearly with hydration time, while the fractal dimension of surface water decreases linearly. The boundary is a sudden change of fractal dimensions after about 4–6 h of hydration. The third stage starts after about 12 h of hydration, at which time the fractal dimensions begin to converge to fixed values. Besides, this study reveals the mathematical relationship between fractal dimension (Df) and particle size distribution modulus (q), which is conducive to achieve the full-cycle regulation of LW/B-CC.

New insights into early-stage time-dependent dielectric characteristics coupled with frequency dependency and hydration-driven reaction of hydraulic cement pastes: Experiments and statistical modelling

In the field of cement and concrete materials engineering, a comprehensive understanding of dielectric properties is crucial for optimising hydraulic cement paste mix designs. This study examines the relationships among the dielectric constant (ε’), loss tangent (tan δ), frequency, hydration time, water content and admixture dosage in different compositions of hydraulic cement paste. A consistent pattern can be observed across the frequency spectrum, where dielectric constants decrease as frequency increases. This aligns with the expected behaviour of cementitious materials. The most notable finding is the inversely proportional relationship between the loss tangent and frequency. As the frequency increases, the loss tangent consistently decreases, indicating improved energy retention and reduced dissipation. This characteristic is of significant value for various applications, including sustainable infrastructure and smart materials. Furthermore, the interactions among hydration time, water content and admixture dosage present an opportunity for dynamic optimisation within the cement paste matrix. These factors collectively impact dielectric properties, providing insights into the potential for tailored material performance and durability, especially in applications where dielectric properties are critical, such as sensing applications and structural health monitoring of concrete structures. This study emphasises the importance of customising cementitious compositions for specific applications in cement and concrete materials engineering. It achieves this through a detailed comparative analysis of different compositions, each representing varying water content and admixture dosage levels. This approach has the potential to significantly transform the field by enabling engineers to create hydraulic cement pastes with customised dielectric properties that meet the specific requirements of construction, infrastructure and other related applications.

Preparation and mechanical properties of Portland cement composites filled with bamboo fibres modified by acetic acid and fermentation treatment

To improve the compatibility between Portland cement and bamboo fibre, bamboo fibres were modified by acetic acid and fermentation treatment and the modified bamboo fibres/Porland cement composites were prepared. The hydration curves of the bamboo fibres/Porland cement composites were measured and the area ratio under the cement hydration heat curve was used as the compatibility coefficient to evaluate the compatibility of bamboo fiber and cement. The hydration products at different hydration times were characterized by XRD, FTIR, and SEM. Moreover, the mechanical strengths of standard test blocks of Portland cement/bamboo fibre composites were tested to further verify the improved compatibility of bamboo fiber and Portland cement. The study shows that the compatibility between bamboo fibre and Portland cement was improved from 9% to 87%, the bending strength of Portland cement/bamboo fibre composite was increased from 638 N to 3678 N, and the compressive strength was increased from 1.5 MPa to 34.35 MPa.

Improved hydration property of tissue adhesive/hemostatic microparticle based on hydrophobically-modified Alaska pollock gelatin

The management of bleeding is an important aspect of endoscopic surgery to avoid excessive blood loss and minimize pain. In clinical settings, sprayable hemostatic particles are used for their easy delivery, adaptability to irregular shapes, and rapid hydration. However, conventional hemostatic particles present challenges associated with tissue adhesion. In a previous study, we reported tissue adhesive microparticles (C10-sa-MPs) derived from Alaska pollock gelatin modified with decyl groups (C10-sa-ApGltn) using secondary amines as linkages. The C10-sa-MPs adhere to soft tissues through a hydration mechanism. However, their application as a hemostatic agent was limited by their long hydration times, attributed to their high hydrophobicity. In this study, we present a new type microparticle, C10-am-MPs, synthesized by incorporating decanoyl group modifications into ApGltn (C10-am-ApGltn), using amide bonds as linkages. C10-am-MPs exhibited enhanced hydration characteristics compared to C10-sa-MPs, attributed to superior water absorption facilitated by amide bonds rather than secondary amines. Furthermore, C10-am-MPs demonstrated comparable tissue adhesion properties and underwater adhesion stability to C10-sa-MPs. Notably, C10-am-MPs exhibited accelerated blood coagulation in vitro compared to C10-sa-MPs. The application of C10-am-MPs in an in vivo rat liver hemorrhage model resulted in a hemostatic effect comparable to a commercially available hemostatic particle. These findings highlight the potential utility of C10-am-MPs as an effective hemostatic agent for endoscopic procedures and surgical interventions.

Calcined schist as promising ordinary Portland cement substitution: C3

AbstractAn effective method to make cement and concrete more sustainable is to blend them with the proper supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). This study evaluates a pair of schist‐type materials with slightly different phase compositions, as a partial replacement for ordinary Portland cement (OPC). Materials received from several mines in ground powder form were studied by X‐ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electron microscopy. According to the TGA results, the activation procedures for the candidate SCMs were determined. The as‐received powders were heat treated in three different decomposition regimes (30%, 50%, and 80% of the total weight losses during thermal decomposition). These regimes corresponded to the activation level of the potential SCMs due to the de‐hydroxylation of the clay‐type minerals within them. Pozzolanic reactivity (pozzolanicity) of untreated as well as treated powders were estimated via electrical conductivity measurements in saturated calcium hydroxide solution. Blended cement pastes with 30 wt.% of OPC substituted with calcined clay‐type materials have developed mechanical properties equal to those of pure cement (100 wt.% OPC) paste after 28 days of hydration time. Two blended cement pastes prepared with candidate SCMs were compared to 100% OPC and OPC composite paste with metakaolin, which is regarded in the literature as a standard.

Optimization of Ca/Si ratio in schists to enhance the pozzolanic supplementary cementitious material for OPC blending

AbstractSupplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) are partial substitutes for ordinary Portland cement (OPC) to reduce cost, the production of carbon dioxide (CO2), and fossil fuel consumption. Recent studies illustrated the effectiveness of calcined kaolinite clay as a proper partial replacement for OPC. Hence, schist‐type materials containing sufficient clay contents are regarded as promising candidates for OPC replacement. This study focuses on the possible use of activated calcium carbonates (CaCO3) to augment pozzolanic reactions of schists as a substitute for OPC. The use of activated calcium carbonates proved to be successful in expediting pozzolanic reactions and facilitating the formation of additional calcium aluminosilicate hydrate (C‐A‐S‐H). In this study, the optimal strength performance for blended cement was achieved by adjusting the total carbonate content to 30 wt.% of the schist. The decision to introduce carbonate to the schist was guided by calculations determining the need for an excess of calcium ions to fully harness the potential for C‐A‐S‐H formation. Virgin and augmented schists were activated by up to 80% of their respective potentials by heat treatment. Phase content and decomposition behavior of the active components were investigated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), x‐ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Cement paste samples incorporating 30 wt.% replacement of OPC with activated schist SCMs were prepared. The phase distribution and compressive strengths of these samples were assessed at hydration intervals of 2, 7, 28, 50, and 90 days. Cement formulations with activated calcium‐augmented SCMs exhibited compressive strength values at 109%, 101%, 96%, 95%, and 94% compared to pure cement paste at 2, 7, 28, 50, and 90 days, respectively. These values surpassed 90% of the compressive strength of pure OPC at equivalent hydration time points.

Effect of ultrasound‐assisted soaking on the hydration kinetics and physicochemical properties of chickpeas

SummaryUnderstanding the behaviour of legumes during soaking results of importance since this might affect subsequent processing steps and thus final product quality. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of different ultrasound‐assisted soaking conditions (45.8–108.7 W cm−2 for 10–30 min) on the hydration, physicochemical and nutritional properties of kabuli chickpeas. During sonication, the temperature of the soaking media was either controlled at 20 °C (treatment referred to as US) or allowed to rise (treatment referred to as US + T). Selected temperature treatments without sonication (treatment referred to as T) were also included to identify thermal effects. Results showed that higher sonication intensities enhanced water imbibition up to a moisture content of 74.5% (w/w), being more pronounced in treatments where a temperature rise was allowed. Hydration kinetics were well described by the Peleg model (R2 = 0.961–0.998). Samples treated with temperature (US + T; T) showed high solid (0.8–5.1%), di‐ (13.2–59.7%) and α‐galactosyl‐sucrose oligosaccharide (5.4–58.7%) losses. In contrast, high US treatments enhanced oligosaccharides to up to 26.2% as well as pasting properties, while decreasing leaching losses (0.93–3.33%). Nutritional properties of sonicated chickpeas were only slightly affected after cooking following no clear trend. Overall, sonication was an effective pre‐treatment to reduce hydration time of up to 90% in chickpeas, especially when combined with temperature, and could be applied to drastically reduce the processing time of chickpea and chickpea flour in the food industry.

Research on Enhancing the Corrosion Resistance of Concrete in a MgSO4 Corrosive Environment Using CTF Synergist

Concrete structure is easy to be damaged by corrosion in natural environment. In order to find a new way to improve the corrosion resistance of concrete. In this paper, the effect of Coal Tar Fuel (CTF) synergist on the corrosion resistance of concrete was analyzed by using MgSO4 solution with concentration of 5% as corrosion medium. The change rule of concrete pore structure was studied. And the performance of concrete interfacial transition zone (ITZ) is studied. Finally, the effect of CTF synergist on hydration reaction of cementitious materials was revealed. The results show that the addition of 0.7% CTF synergist can significantly enhance the corrosion resistance of concrete, even with 10% reduction in cement dosage. After 28 days of being cured under this dosage, there is 13.54% increase in the proportion of pores with a diameter less than 100 µm and a 5.36% decrease in the proportion of pores with a diameter greater than 600 µm. Meanwhile, the microhardness of ITZ increases by 41.14%, while the width of ITZ decreases by 12.5%. Additionally, there is a reduction in the maximum crack width at the interface between ITZ and aggregate by 1.8 µm. The exothermic reaction of the cementitious material during hydration is more pronounced when the hydration time exceeds one hour.

Modelling the carbon balance in bryophytes and lichens: Presentation of PoiCarb 1.0, a new model for explaining distribution patterns and predicting climate-change effects.

Bryophytes and lichens have important functional roles in many ecosystems. Insight into their CO2 -exchange responses to climatic conditions is essential for understanding current and predicting future productivity and biomass patterns, but responses are hard to quantify at time scales beyond instantaneous measurements. We present PoiCarb 1.0, a model to study how CO2 -exchange rates of these poikilohydric organisms change through time as a function of weather conditions. PoiCarb simulates diel fluctuations of CO2 exchange and estimates long-term carbon balances, identifying optimal and limiting climatic patterns. Modelled processes were net photosynthesis, dark respiration, evaporation and water uptake. Measured CO2 -exchange responses to light, temperature, atmospheric CO2 concentration, and thallus water content (calculated in a separate module) were used to parameterize the model's carbon module. We validated the model by comparing modelled diel courses of net CO2 exchange to such courses from field measurements on the tropical lichen Crocodia aurata. To demonstrate the model's usefulness, we simulated potential climate-change effects. Diel patterns were reproduced well, and the modelled and observed diel carbon balances were strongly positively correlated. Simulated warming effects via changes in metabolic rates were consistently negative, while effects via faster drying were variable, depending on the timing of hydration. Reproducing weather-dependent variation in diel carbon balances is a clear improvement compared to simply extrapolating short-term measurements or potential photosynthetic rates. Apart from predicting climate-change effects, future uses of PoiCarb include testing hypotheses about distribution patterns of poikilohydric organisms and guiding conservation strategies for species.

Avaliação do desempenho de argamassas autonivelantes utilizando resíduos de fosfogesso e cerâmica branca

Abstract This study investigates the properties of self-leveling subfloor mortar mixtures with natural and calcined phosphogypsum waste in the form of calcium sulfate called anhydrite and white ceramic, by replacing 50% of the mass of Portland cement CP II Z-32. The effects of using waste were evaluated in the fresh (initial fluidity, flow retention, regeneration time, setting time, and heat of hydration) and hardened (compressive and flexural tensile strength, density, water absorption, void ratio, linear shrinkage, and tensile adhesion strength) state. The optimized mixture at a 1:1.5 cement/sand ratio (by mass) with 50% white ceramic had a 32.66 ± 4.26 MPa compressive strength at 28 days, low shrinkage and heat of hydration, showing the best performance among the wastes studied. In the calcium sulfate mortars, the mixtures with anhydrite showed better results for compressive and flexural tensile strength and tensile adhesion strength, with the waste calcination being beneficial.

Application of an industrialized ultrafine composite powder in cement-based materials: Hydration characteristics, microstructure, and corrosion resistance

To reduce the reliance on cement clinker, employing ultrafine powders as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) is gradually gaining importance. This study investigated the effect of an ultrafine composite powder (UCP) having a specific surface area of approximately 730 m²/kg, produced by industrial ball milling ordinary blast furnace slag and fly ash at a 1:1 ratio, on cement hydration and its durability. The ultrafine composite powder was characterized by X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF), X-Ray diffraction (XRD), particle size analyzer, and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The effects of ultrafine composite powder on the macroscopic properties of cement-based materials were assessed through flowability tests, setting time tests, and mechanical properties tests. Then, the hydration heat release, hydration products and microstructures of the pastes were characterized using isothermal calorimetry, XRD, thermogravimetric (TG), SEM and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). Finally, the effects of ultrafine composite powder on the durability of cement-based materials were evaluated by electrical flux, chloride diffusion coefficient, and mechanical properties tests. The results showed that ultrafine composite powder enhanced the flowability of cement paste under the synergistic effect of superplasticizer. However, the setting time was prolonged due to the dilution of cement by ultrafine composite powder. The ultrafine composite powder significantly improved the early mechanical properties of the mortar, and the mechanical properties after 28-days was equivalent to that of the control. The ultrafine composite powder could significantly decrease the cumulative heat release of cement paste. Due to the high SO3 content, an additional exothermic peak representing ettringite formation was observed. As the hydration time extends, the hydration products in the paste changed, especially the transformation from ettringite to kuzite, and the formation of hemicarbonate and monocarbonate. As the ultrafine composite powder content increases, the proportion of gel micro-pores increased, whereas the proportion of middle and large capillary pores decreased. Consequently, the total pores in the paste also decreased. The addition of ultrafine composite powder enhanced the durability of the cement-based materials, making it an ideal choice for use in coastal engineering projects.

Monitoring the effect of MgO expansive additive on micromechanical properties of cementitious materials using a combined method of EDS-nanoindentation

The effect of MgO expansive additive (MEA) on micromechanical properties is significant for understanding both the expansive and the mechanical behavior of the shrinkage-compensating concrete containing MEA. This study monitored the stiffness of different phases appearing in the shrinkage-compensating cementitious material containing MEA by using a combined method of energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS)-nanoindentation. The effect of MEA and hydration time on the calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) and portlandite was focused. The MEA weakened the micromechanical properties of C-S-H and portlandite mainly at early ages. Hydration is the main reason responsible for the elastic properties evolution of C-S-H. With a two-step homogenization scheme, the experimentally determined micromechanical properties of individual phases were successfully upscaled to the macroscopic elastic modulus of the material. This study is a pioneering study on uncovering the micromechanical signature of the shrinkage-compensating concrete containing MEA.

Effect of nano-SiO2 on rheology and early hydration of cement containing high volume slag

Using nano-SiO2 particles is a viable approach for enhancing early performance of blended cement containing high volume slag. The present research aims to investigate the rheology and early hydration of cement incorporating high volume slag and nano-SiO2. The initial and time-varying rheology of blended cement have been evaluated by testing static/dynamic yield stress, plastic viscosity as well as apparent viscosity. Besides, early hydration of blended cement has also been studied through measuring the setting time and heat of hydration. Results show that nano-SiO2 significantly increases the initial and time-varying rheological value of blended cement, the enhancement effect becomes more obvious with the increased dosage of nano-SiO2. In addition, nano-SiO2 can shorten the setting time of blended cement, which is beneficial to rapid construction of concrete with high volume slag. Further, nano-SiO2 shortens induction period, promote C3S hydration, accelerate the transformation from ettringite (AFt) to monosulfate (AFm). Ultimately, nanosilica decreases the content of C3S+C2S in hardened cement paste, resulting in more hydration products. This paper will provide scientific support for revealing the rheology and early hydration of blended cement with high volume slag and nano-SiO2.

Impact of protein blend formulation and extrusion conditions on the physical properties of texturised pea protein‐extended beef burgers

SummaryThis study aimed to assess the physical properties of pea‐based texturised vegetable proteins (TVPs) and TVP function as a meat extender (20%–40% w/w) in beef burgers. TVPs were produced with varying protein blend formulas (PBFs) (70%, 76%, 82% protein on a dry basis), extrusion screw speeds (350–450 r.p.m.) and feed moisture contents (FMCs) (38% and 42%, db). Increasing PBF raised TVP hydration time and integrity index, while FMC and screw speed had no discernable trend on these properties. A select group of TVPs were applied as extenders in beef burgers which were tested for their cooking properties and textural quality. Higher FMC lowered total cooking loss (TCL) for some burgers but overall did not impact burger cooking properties or texture. Increasing the extension level reduced TCL and change in burger diameter (CBD). TVPs produced at the lowest PBF and higher FMC studied had the greatest potential in meat extender applications, as they decreased TCL and CBD while maintaining comparable texture to burgers without TVP addition. These lower protein TVPs with enhanced cooking quality can be economically advantageous for the vegetarian and flexitarian applications of plant‐based extenders.

Artificial fractures conductivity impairment in gas shale when fracturing with surface water

The shale gas fields are mainly in mountainous areas in China. Surface water is the major source of hydraulic fracturing fluid to develop shale gas. The clay mineral is generally rich in the shale gas reservoir. When encountered with low salinity surface water, the clay minerals are easy to hydrate in the process of fracturing and well shut-in. The hydration of clay minerals would result in the expansion, dispersion, and migration of mineral particles from the fracture surface, changing the structure and space of fractures, thereby affecting fracture conductivity. In this paper, shale artificial fracture core models were developed with rough fracture surfaces. With proppant-supported and self-supported fracture core models, the impact of hydration time, net pressure, and dislocation distance of fracture surfaces on the artificial conductivity were evaluated systematically. The results show that the conductivity of proppant-supported and self-supported fractures decreases by 85.3–95.1% under hydration. The turning point of conductivity is 8.0 hrs. and 4.3 hrs., respectively. At the initial stage of production, the artificial fracture could be protected better if the net pressure on the fracture is maintained from small to large. At the same time, the initial net pressure on fracture should be less than the proppant crushing pressure. Certain dislocation distances of self-supported fractures would augment the conductivity by 6.4–12.8 times. After hydration, illite and montmorillonite in the rock surface expanded and dispersed when encountered with water. The fracture surface strength decreases by 29.8%, while the surface roughness decreases by 46.1–51.6%, and some proppants were crushed. Then the fracture conductivity space was reduced. By adding KCl into the fracturing fluid, hydration can be effectively inhibited, which can increase the proppant-supported and self-supported fracture conductivity by 2.5–3.4 times, compared with fracturing fluid prepared with surface water. This study provides a theoretical basis for the optimization of shale gas reservoir fracturing technology and production strategy.