Hybrid Battery Research Articles

Development of Hydrogen Fuel Cell–Battery Hybrid Multicopter System Thermal Management and Power Management System Based on AMESim

Development of Hydrogen Fuel Cell–Battery Hybrid Multicopter System Thermal Management and Power Management System Based on AMESim

Life Cycle Assessment of Green Methanol Production Based on Multi-Seasonal Modeling of Hybrid Renewable Energy and Storage Systems

This study evaluates the environmental implications of green methanol production under seasonal energy variability through a dual-comparative analytical framework. The research employs ReCiPe 2016 Endpoint (H) methodology to assess four seasonal renewable energy configurations (with varying solar–wind ratios across seasons) against conventional grid-based production, utilizing a hybrid battery storage system combining lithium-ion and vanadium redox flow technologies. The findings reveal significant environmental benefits, with seasonal renewable configurations achieving 24.38% to 28.26% reductions in global warming potential compared to conventional methods. Monte Carlo simulation (n = 20,000) confirms these improvements across all impact categories. Our process analysis identifies hydrogen production as the primary environmental impact contributor (74–94%), followed by carbon capture (5–13%) and methanol synthesis (0.5–4.5%). Water consumption impacts show seasonal variation, ranging from 16.55% in summer to 11.62% in winter. There is a strong positive correlation between hydrogen production efficiency and solar energy availability, suggesting that higher solar energy input contributes to improved production outcomes. This research provides a framework for optimizing sustainable methanol production through seasonal renewable energy integration, offering practical insights for industrial implementation while maintaining production stability through effective energy storage solutions.

A Modular and Scalable Approach to Hybrid Battery and Converter Integration for Full-Electric Waterborne Transport

This paper presents a flexible and scalable battery system for maritime transportation, integrating modular converters and hybrid battery technologies that are effectively implemented in real-world scenarios. The proposed system is realized with modular DC-DC converters, which do not require complex design and control or a high number of components and combine high-power (HP) and high-energy (HE) battery cells to optimize the energy and power requirements of vessel operations without oversizing the energy storage system. Moreover, the modular design ensures flexibility and scalability, allowing for easy adaptation to varying operational demands. In particular, the system topology, control mechanisms, and communication protocols are explained in this paper. The concept has been validated through simulations and real-scale laboratory tests, demonstrating its effectiveness. Key results highlight the system’s ability to maintain the DC bus voltage while operating at high efficiency (ranging from 97% to 98%) under different load conditions, supported by reliable and demanding real-time communication using the EtherCAT standard. This real-time capability has been validated, and related results are presented in this paper, showing a synchronization accuracy below 200 ns between two modules and a stable control at a cycle time of 400 µs. This approach offers a promising solution for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the maritime industry, aligning with global sustainability goals.

Electrothermally tailored lithiophilic Co/CoxOy@porous graphite composites for high-performance Li-ion/metal hybrid batteries

Electrothermally tailored lithiophilic Co/CoxOy@porous graphite composites for high-performance Li-ion/metal hybrid batteries

Multiobjective energy management of multi-source offshore parks assisted with hybrid battery and hydrogen/fuel-cell energy storage systems

With the recent advancements in the development of hybrid offshore parks and the expected large-scale implementation of them in the near future, it becomes paramount to investigate proper energy management strategies to improve the integrability of these parks into the power systems. This paper addresses a multiobjective energy management approach using a hybrid energy storage system comprising batteries and hydrogen/fuel-cell systems applied to multi-source wind-wave and wind-solar offshore parks to maximize the delivered energy while minimizing the variations of the power output. To find the solution of the optimization problem defined for energy management, a strategy is proposed based on the examination of a set of weighting factors to form the Pareto front while the problem associated with each of them is assessed in a mixed-integer linear programming framework. Subsequently, fuzzy decision making is applied to select the final solution among the ones existing in the Pareto front. The studies are implemented in different locations considering scenarios for electrical system limitation and the place of the storage units. According to the results, applying the proposed multiobjective framework successfully addresses the enhancement of energy delivery and the decrease in power output fluctuations in the hybrid offshore parks across all scenarios of electrical system limitation and combinational storage locations. Based on the results, in addition to the increase in delivered energy, a decrease in power variations by around 40 % up to over 80 % is observed in the studied cases.

A high-efficiency and long-cycling aqueous indium metal battery enabled by synergistic In3+/K+ interactions.

Aqueous trivalent metal batteries are promising options for energy storage, owing to their ability to transfer three electrons during redox reactions. However, advances in this field have been limited by challenges such as incompatible M3+/M electrode potentials and salt hydrolysis. Herein, we identify the trivalent indium metal as a viable candidate and demonstrate a high-performance indium-Prussian blue hybrid battery using a K+/In3+ mixture electrolyte. Interestingly, there exists a synergistic interaction between K+ and In3+ ions, which enhances the coulombic efficiency and prolongs the cycling life. Specifically, the addition of K+ elevates the In3+/In plating efficiency from 99.3% to 99.6%, due to the decreased electrolyte acidity and enlarged indium particle size. Simultaneously, the presence of In3+ creates an inherently acidic environment (pH ∼3.1), which effectively stabilizes K+ insertion into the Prussian blue framework. Consequently, this hybrid battery delivered a high capacity of 130 mA h g-1, an exceptional rate of 96 A g-1 (∼740 C), and an extraordinary cycling life of 48 000 cycles. This work offers an innovative approach to develop high-performance hybrid metal batteries.

A Review of PCM based Hybrid Battery Thermal Management Systems for the Prismatic Lithium-ion batteries of the Electric Vehicle

A Review of PCM based Hybrid Battery Thermal Management Systems for the Prismatic Lithium-ion batteries of the Electric Vehicle

Improving Energy Efficiency and Autonomy Through the Development of a Hybrid Battery–Supercapacitor System in Electromobility

This study focuses on the development of a hybrid battery-supercapacitor system aimed at enhancing energy efficiency and autonomy in electromobility. The energy supply system of an electric vehicle must ensure high performance and autonomy, even after numerous battery life cycles. Previous approaches to hybrid systems that combine batteries and supercapacitors focus on reducing power losses by relying on controllers that evaluate the state of charge (SOC) of the energy sources to determine which one should provide power at any given time. These systems typically use a controller that monitors only the SOC of the battery and supercapacitor. In contrast, our study introduces an innovative controller that not only evaluates the SOC of both energy sources but also incorporates the current of the electric motor, taking into account its operational state. This approach allows for a more accurate representation of energy consumption and motor performance, providing significant advantages in terms of energy efficiency, extended battery life, and improved performance under high motor loads, which are characteristic of modern electric vehicle requirements. The current paper encompasses both experimental and simulated results, indicating that the hybrid approach provides significant advantages, such as improved energy autonomy, extended battery life as the primary energy source, and enhanced performance at high motor speeds that stress the battery.

A Long‐Life Aqueous Rechargeable Aluminum‐Ammonium Hybrid Battery

AbstractAqueous rechargeable batteries (ARBs) offer a low‐cost, high‐safety, and fast‐reacting alternatives for large‐scale energy storage. However, their further practical applications are limited by challenges in achieving satisfactory energy density, long cycling lifetime, and cost‐effectiveness. In this study, an aqueous rechargeable aluminum‐ammonium hybrid battery is reported (AAHB) that utilizes a Prussian blue analogue (K1.14FeIII[FeII(CN)6]·nH2O) as an ultra‐stable cathode for reversibly accommodating ammonium ion, paired with aluminum‐ one of the lowest‐cost metals, aside from iron—as the anode. An average working voltage of 1.15 V, remarkable rate capability, and an attractive energy density of 89.3 Wh kg−1 are achieved. Notably, the Prussian blue analogue cathode exhibits almost no attenuation after an ultra‐long cycle life of 100,000 cycles, and the assembled AAHB demonstrates a long cycling lifespan exceeding 10,000 cycles. This work opens a door for exploring high‐performance and low‐cost ARBs for grid‐level energy storage.

Regulating Charge Transfer in a Heterojunction Photoanode for Efficient Photo‐Charging of Zn‐Air/Sulfion Hybrid Batteries

AbstractIntegrating sulfion‐rich wastewater purification with photo‐charging Zn‐Air batteries enables dual benefits for solar energy storage and environmental protection. However, photo‐charging efficiency is hindered by charge transfer issues. Here, the study synthesizes a CdS@CdIn2S4 core–shell photoelectrode and uses Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM) to probe surface potential changes and photo‐charge transfer under illumination. The outer shell (CdIn2S4) exhibits upward band bending and a Conduction Band (CB) more negative than bulk CdS, leading to the accumulation of photoelectrons on the surface, which is detrimental to sulfion oxidation. Vacancy engineering aligns the Fermi energy of two materials, creating an optimal type‐II configuration that accumulates holes on the surface, thereby boosting the photo‐charging current density in Zn‐Air/Sulfion hybrid batteries by 18‐fold. A benchmark photo‐charging current density of 1.26 mA cm−2 is therefore achieved for Zn‐Air/Sulfion hybrid batteries. This work demonstrates the effectiveness of regulating charge transfer pathways in photo‐charging Zn‐Air/Sulfion hybrid batteries, showing potential applications in various photo‐assisted batteries.

Degradation-considering adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy for fuel cell electric vehicles

In order to improve the economy and durability of fuel cell vehicle, a degradation-considering adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy (D-ECMS) was proposed for fuel cell/lithium battery hybrid power system. Aiming at enhancing the adaptability of the equivalent consumption minimum strategy, four different vehicle speed conditions were considered including low speed, medium speed, high speed, and ultra-high speed. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm was used to optimize the penalty factor under different vehicle speed conditions, and BP neural network was used to identify real-time conditions to form an adaptive equivalent consumption minimum strategy (A-ECMS). The voltage decay model of the fuel cell was established according to the voltage decay rate of the fuel cell under the three adverse conditions of idle speed, high power and dynamic load cycle. The voltage decay of the fuel cell was transformed to hydrogen consumption in the cost function of the A-ECMS strategy to obtain the D-ECMS considering durability degradation. The simulation and the hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) test based on the dSPACE real-time platform was carried out. The results show that: compared with A-ECMS, the hydrogen consumption of the D-ECMS increased by 5.2%, 9.7%, 10.2%, and 0.2% respectively under WLTC, NEDC, UDDS, and HWFET cycles. However, D-ECMS can reduce the voltage decay by 38.3%, 59.7%, 35.2%, and 26% under the above four test conditions, and their total comprehensive cost loss is reduced by 8.7%, 6.7%, 9.6%, and 6.3% respectively. As result, the D-ECMS can reduces the voltage attenuation of fuel cells and improve the durability of fuel cells significantly with a small hydrogen consumption increase,which can reduce the operating cost of fuel cells finally. Furthermore, the average error between the results of HIL test and offline simulation results is less than 5%, which validates the adaptability and real-time application feasibility of D-ECMS.

Multi-objective hierarchical energy management strategy for fuel cell/battery hybrid power ships

The energy management strategy and the local controller in the ship energy management system are interconnected, impacting the performance of the hybrid propulsion system. To achieve the efficient operation of the hydrogen fuel cell (FC) and battery hybrid power system, based on the modelling and analysis of the hybrid power system, a nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) based energy management strategy is proposed, and a dynamic virtual impedance droop controller and a classical proportional-integral (PI) controller are designed as local controllers. By simulating the designed random load conditions, pulse load conditions, and actual sailing conditions using hardware-in-the-loop (HiLs) technology, six different energy management strategies and their comprehensive performance with local controllers are compared and analysed. Comparing performance in terms of energy consumption, operating pressure, control accuracy, real-time performance, and robustness, it has been proven that the energy management strategy based on NMPC, coupled with a PI controller, is superior to other strategies overall. It can balance hydrogen consumption and the stable operation of the hybrid power system. Compared to existing energy management strategies, the proposed NMPC+PI strategy can reduce hydrogen consumption by 7.00 % and 40.29 %, and FC operating pressure by 44.96 % and 49.88 %, respectively, under both designed navigation conditions and actual navigation conditions.

Designing high-performance asymmetric and hybrid energy devices via merging supercapacitive/pseudopcapacitive and Li-ion battery type electrodes

We report a strategic development of asymmetric (supercapacitive–pseudocapacitive) and hybrid (supercapacitive/pseudocapacitive–battery) energy device architectures as generation–II electrochemical energy systems. We derived performance-potential estimation regarding the specific power, specific energy, and fast charge–discharge cyclic capability. Among the conceived group, pseudocapacitor–battery hybrid device is constructed with a high-rate intrinsic asymmetric pseudocapacitive (α − MnO2/rGO) and a high-capacity Li-ion intercalation battery type (po-nSi/rGO) electrodes. The experimental setup was developed to measure the current sharing between the two different active materials in a single device allowing us to distinguish the contribution of each active electrode material. The combined potentiostatic cyclic voltammograms and galvanostatic charge–discharge cycling profiles provided gravimetric capacity exceeding 600 F/g (or 180.5 mAh g−1 and ≥ 35mC/cm2) resulting in higher specific power and specific energy densities of 6.5 kW kg−1 and 33.5 Wh kg−1 with Coulombic efficiency (CE) and capacitance retention exceeding ≥ 85–90%, reported to date for full cell configuration, compared with symmetric or half-cell configurations (ca. 0.1 kW kg−1 and 13.7 Wh kg−1). Other systems studied provided specific energy ranged between 28 Wh kg−1 and 50 Wh kg−1 and specific power between 6.5 kW kg−1and 1.3 kW kg−1. Moreover, the behavior of such asymmetric hybrid devices represented a linear combination of the two active electrode material systems. The use of aqueous (and organic) electrolytes for asymmetric electrodes dramatically improved device performance and stability depending upon the electrode combination forming hybrid energy devices. We attribute the observed efficient performance of these hybrid devices induced by hybridized and emergent redox chemistries of merged electrode materials and dynamical processes at the electrode-electrolyte interfaces (intrinsic electroactivity, optimized double-layer and quantum capacitance) which play multiple roles. These energy devices are commercially relevant due to their potential viability in future hybrid electric vehicles, smart electric grids, electrocatalytic fuel production, space (micro-satellites), and miniaturized flexible electronic and wearable biomedical devices.

A High-Capacity Hybrid Desalination System Using Battery Type and Pseudocapacitive Type Electrodes

Developing cost-effective brackish water and seawater desalination technology is crucial. Capacitive deionization (CDI) and inverted capacitive deionization (i-CDI) have been recognized as a promising desalination technology with low energy consumption for brackish water.Both systems use an electric field between two porous electrodes to remove and release ions in water reversibly.Recently, CDI has started using pseudocapacitive or battery electrode materials to enhance the desalination performance.Different from the desalination principle of electric double layers, the energy storage mechanisms of pseudocapacitive and battery materials generally involve ion intercalation/adsorption or compound formation for charge balance, leading to the faradaic desalination.Low cost and high theoretical capacity make PBAs and conducting polymers be the potential materials for the faradaic desalination application.In our previous studies, two dissimilar pseudocapacitive materials show a memory effect during brackish water desalination. This allows them to retain ion capturing or releasing states without an electric field, aiding water purification and resource recovery.Based on above viewpoints, two materials with fundamentally different electrochemical properties are demonstrated to construct a high-capacity, hybrid, faradaic deionization system with CuHCF (battery type) as the positive electrode and PPy (pseudocapacitive type) as the negative electrode.The deionization performance of this CuHCF//PPy cell can be improved by reversing the appropriate cell voltage during the discharge process.The plot of specific SRC against time for the above CuHCF//PPy cell with variations in the charging cell voltage but a fixed discharging cell voltage of 0 V. In addition, Fig. 1(b) shows the plot of specific SRC against time for the same cell with variations in the discharging cell voltage but a fixed charging cell voltage of 1.2 V. From Fig. 1(a), at all charging voltages, the SRC generally decreases with the charging time, indicating the ion repelling process. The order of charging cell voltage with respect to increasing the SRC value is: 0.6 V < 0.8 V < 1.0 V < 1.2 V, revealing the impact of the charging cell voltage. From Fig. 1(b), the SRC obviously increase with prolonging the discharging time, suggesting the ion capturing process. However, the order of discharging cell voltage with respect to increasing the SRC value is: -0.4 V < 0 V < −0.1 V< −0.2 V < −0.3 V. Note that a little inverted cell voltage leads to a higher salt-removing capacity and rate in comparison with a discharge cell voltage of 0 V. However, when the inverted voltage is set at −0.4 V, the SRC profile exhibits the unstable performance, probably due to the presence of certain irreversible reactions at this cell voltage.In the stability test, Fig 2 shows the CuHCF//PPy cell still maintained more than 90% of its original SRC after 50 cycles of testing.The mean SRC values of this CuHCF//PPy system obtained from the 8, 15, and 30 mM solutions reached 35.536, 58.824, and 101.84 mg g−1, respectively.This positive correlation between SRC and solution concentration reveals the higher utilization of the electroactive materials in more concentrated solutions and the very high SRC of the hybrid faradaic CuHCF//PPy system.From Fig 3 shows the SRC values of a CuHCF//PPy cell with the charging/discharging times of 30/30 min at the charging/discharging cell voltages of 1.2/−0.2 V in the 8, 15, and 30 mM NaCl solutions.The memory effect of electrochemically active materials can further extend the application of this system to concentrating valuable ions while purifying water, showing another advantage.The results of ion-removing and salt-concentrating experiment with the discharge/charge times = 10 min/10 min for 10 cycles. In this 10-cycle test, the total amount of salts transferred is up to 152.9 mg g−1, revealing the dual function of purifying water and concentrating salts through this hybrid battery//pseudo-capacitive system.This hybrid cell showed high salt removal capacities in the media containing various monovalent and divalent cations. In this work, the suitable working potential windows of both CuHCF and PPy were systematically evaluated by CV and GCD methods with the charge balance application. Moreover, this cell provides the ability in capturing other cations such as Mg2+ and Ca2+, further broadening its future potential applications. This methodology is a promising strategy for constructing a high-performance desalination cells consisting of various active materials. Figure 1

Regulating the Solvation Shell Structure of Eutectic Electrolytes for Stable and High Performance Anode-Free Zn-Li Hybrid Batteries

With the development of technology, various related policies have emerged wherein the application of batteries plays a crucial role. Presently, lithium-ion batteries widely used in the market suffer from poor safety, high cost, and temperature usage limitations. To solve these challenges, this study employs Zinc ion batteries (ZIBs) as the electrolyte. Zinc-based electrolytes exhibit high energy density, low cost, high safety, and abundant resources. However, the application of Zinc ion batteries (ZIBs) is accompanied by specific electrochemical issues, such as hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), dendritic growth, and the formation of passivation layers, which subsequently affect battery lifespan, Coulombic efficiency (CE), and energy efficiency (EE). Therefore, addressing these side reactions can lead to superior performance and benefits across various aspects of the electrolyte.Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES), formed through intricate hydrogen bond networks, divides salt compositions into hydrogen bond acceptors (HBA) and hydrogen bond donors (HBD), thereby altering the total melting point. DES electrolytes can form unique structures, thus improving electrochemical side reactions. Leveraging these characteristics, this experiment designs a novel deep electronic solution (DES) electrolyte and assembles a pouch cell to measure its electrochemical performance.This electrolyte is prepared by initially heating and stirring a mixture of 1 mol of zinc chloride and 4 mol of acetamide until fully dissolved, followed by adding 1 mol of lithium acetate. Due to the high viscosity of the resulting electrolyte, 5 mol of acetonitrile is added after cooling to reduce viscosity. Additionally, the impact of adding water to the electrolyte on battery lifespan, overpotential, Coulombic efficiency, and energy efficiency is investigated. Therefore, another electrolyte is prepared for comparison, maintaining the same primary salt concentration but including 1 mol of water and 4 mol of acetonitrile.Using the positive electrode material lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4, LMO), a Zn//LMO anode-free cell is constructed for electrochemical testing. Initially, the electrolyte is tested for the electrochemical performance of Zn//Zn symmetric cells, Zn//Cu asymmetric cells, and Zn//LMO anode-free cells (with or without co-solvent). Various electrochemical tests are then conducted, including Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), cyclic voltammetry (CV), linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), Tafel plots, and C-Rate cycling. Furthermore, Raman spectroscopy and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy techniques are utilized to investigate the solvation structure of the electrolyte. Lastly, viscosity and conductivity measurements are performed.The results indicate that in Zn//Zn symmetric cells, electrolytes with added co-solvent exhibit a 0.36V reduction in overpotential during Zn plating/stripping compared to those without co-solvent. Additionally, in Zn//Cu asymmetric cells, electrolytes with added co-solvent demonstrate relatively stable Coulombic efficiency, maintaining an average of over 99.7% efficiency at a current density of 0.5 mA/cm2. In Zn//LMO anode-free cell testing, it is observed that electrolytes with added 1 mol of water and 4 mol of acetonitrile initially exhibit the highest specific capacity (75mAh/g), maintaining good specific capacity even after cycling at a current of 100mA/g. In C-Rate testing, the Zn//Cu asymmetric cell with added co-solvent shows better stability, with Coulombic efficiency maintaining above 99.9% when cycling back to low current density. the electrolyte with added 1 mol of water and 4 mol of acetonitrile in the Zn//LMO half-cell maintains a Coulombic efficiency of 99.4% and a specific capacity of 50 mAh/g when cycling back to low current density.Electrolyte analysis reveals the presence of [ZnCl(C2H5NO)2(CH3COO-)]+ at the peak of 282 cm-1 in the Raman spectrum. Upon adding acetonitrile, a characteristic peak of C-C≡N at 381 cm-1 appears, which decreases with adding water. Additionally, at the peak of 944 cm-1, a characteristic peak of lithium acetate C-C is observed, which shifts upon adding acetonitrile. This suggests a change in the coordination of zinc ions in the solvation shell, from one chloride ion and three acetamide molecules to one chloride ion, one acetate ion, and two acetamide molecules upon adding acetonitrile. In the FTIR spectrum, a blue shift is observed in the C=O characteristic peaks between 1640 cm-1~1670 cm-1 upon adding acetonitrile, indicating the penetration of acetonitrile into the solvation shell. Additionally, a blue shift is observed between 1360 cm-1~1420 cm-1, attributed to the C=O characteristic peaks of acetonitrile and acetate ions, confirming the penetration of acetate ions into the solvation shell, forming a unique Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES) structure. Figure 1

Polyacrylamide-Based Hydrogel Electrolyte for Modulating Water Activity in Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries

The limitations of lithium-ion battery systems, including lithium scarcity, demanding assembly conditions, and safety risks associated with flammable organic electrolytes, underscore the need for renewable, cost-effective, and safe alternatives. While zinc-ion or hybrid aqueous battery systems have garnered interest, challenges such as undesired side reactions, limited electrochemical stability, and electrolyte leakage persist, hindering large-scale adoption. Among electrolyte engineering approaches, hydrogel electrolytes have emerged as promising solutions, offering improved stability and relatively high ionic conductivity while mitigating leakage risks. Additionally, the modification opportunities of the hydrogel electrolytes present great potential for various applications.Here, we synthesized a dual-function hydrogel electrolyte based on polyacrylamide and poly(ethylene dioxythiophene):polystyrene. This electrolyte effectively reduces water content and enhances stability by minimizing undesired side reactions. Moreover, the polymer network and its functional groups promote controlled ion transport. Swelling in a binary solution of ethylene glycol and water (EG 10%) further enhances the stability of the assembled battery system. The developed hydrogel exhibits relatively good ionic conductivity (1.6 * 10-3 S cm-1) and excellent electrochemical stability, surpassing 2.5 V on linear sweep voltammetry tests (Figure 1). An assembled aqueous lithium-ion hybrid battery with a zinc anode demonstrates high capacity (119.2 mAh g-1), close to 100% columbic efficiency, and good cycle stability, retaining 67.6% capacity after more than 380 cycles. This study highlights the potential of polyacrylamide-based hydrogel electrolytes with dual functionality as the electrolyte and separator, inspiring further development in hydrogel electrolytes for aqueous battery systems. Acknowledgement BR21882402 "Development of new material technologies and energy storage systems for a green economy" from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Figure 1

Reduction of Li2CO3 Surface Species from Garnet-Type Solid-State Electrolytes via Scalable Open-Air Plasma Treatment

Integrating garnet-type lithium lanthanum zirconium oxide (LLZO) solid electrolytes into all-solid-state or hybrid batteries presents numerous challenges. One significant obstacle is the spontaneous formation of lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) when surfaces of LLZO are exposed to moisture and carbon dioxide, which can lead to high interfacial impedance with electrodes and deleterious effects on the mechanical, electrochemical, and safety performance of the materials. Current methods for removing Li2CO3 include mechanical polishing and thermal treatment under inert gas, both of which are time-consuming and difficult to scale up or implement in practical applications.We report on the use of atmospheric pressure (open-air) blown arc discharge plasma to remove Li2CO3 species from the surface of tantalum doped LLZO (LLZTO). Open-air plasma technology offers a unique opportunity for surface treatments and functionalization by driving reactions and changes to surfaces that are not possible with other plasma or modification approaches. The proccess can also be scaled and implemented in continuous, roll-to-roll processing. In this method, compressed N2 gas at room temperature is passed through a high voltage zone (1 kV) at a controllable rate (20 liters per minute in this study), where it is ionized. The gas blows the plasma discharge out of a nozzle, and the LLZTO sample is placed at approximately ~1 mm away from the afterglow. The uniqueness of the open-air plasma system is the combination of energy sources which are generated: electrons and reactive species (radicals, metastables, and photons) are produced in combination with convective heat to rapidly transfer energy to enable ultrafast precursor conversion or post-treatment.The plasma treatment is carried out entirely in ambient conditions (RH ~40%) and is enabled by use of a custom-built metal shroud that is placed around the plasma nozzle to prevent moisture and carbon dioxide from reacting with the sample. After the plasma treatment, compressed gas is introduced through the shroud to mitigate reformation of the Li2CO3 as the sample is cooling. The surface chemistry of the LLZTO is characterized with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to quantify the rate at which Li2CO3 forms in ambient on a fresh LLZTO surface, as well as to assess the effect of plasma process parameters on removal of the Li2CO3 surface species. Specifically, we focus on 3 parameters: treatment time (5, 10, 20 or 40 minutes) and shroud gas chemistry (N2 or O2) used after treatment. The most substantial reduction in Li2CO3 contamination on the LLZTO surface is achieved after 20 minutes of exposure to open-air plasma with a N2 shroud gas.To examine the impacts of the plasma treatment on the interfacial resistance, we prepared symmetric cells comprising LLZTO pellets contacted with nonblocking electrodes made from lithium-tin alloy. We find that the open-air plasma treatment can significantly reduce the interface impedance to levels comparable with those measured when using mechanical polishing to remove the Li2CO3. Additionally, we find that the plasma treatment may also be used to modify the LLZTO structure and microstructure properties, and can also be used on other types of garnets. The results show that this platform demonstrates a path towards open-air processed solid-state batteries with improved interfacial and microstructural properties. Acknowledgments This work was supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) through award TT-2234636. We acknowledge resources and support from the Advanced Electronics and Photonics Core Facility at Arizona State University. We acknowledge the use of facilities within the Eyring Materials Center at Arizona State University supported in part by NNCI-ECCS-1542160.

Engineering Heterointerface to Synergistically Regulate Kinetics and Stress of Copper-Cobalt Selenide toward Reversible Magnesium/Lithium Hybrid Batteries.

Metal chalcogenide-based cathodes are crucial for the development of rechargeable magnesium batteries, yet the strong electrostatic interactions of Mg2+ result in slow ion transport and high polarization. The Mg2+/Li+ hybrid battery holds promise for enhancing the energy storage capability. Herein, we establish a system that utilizes (Co,Cu)Se2/CoSex heterostructure grown on carbon cloth as the cathode and APC-LiCl as a dual-salt electrolyte to achieve high reversible capacity, enhanced cyclic stability, and impressive rate performance. First-principles calculations and kinetic analyses are employed to uncover that constructing the heterointerface stimulates the formation of an intrinsic electric field and high-density electron flows, thereby accelerating charge transfer and ion diffusion processes. Finite element simulations further demonstrate that the heterostructure effectively alleviates stresses associated with magnesiation/lithiation to enhance the structural integrity of the material. Moreover, the multistep reaction unveils a stepwise structural transformation pathway. This study initiates a new chapter in designing heterointerface strategies for advanced energy storage devices.

Polymer Electrolytes with High Ionic Conductivities at Freezing Temperature for Aqueous Hybrid Batteries.

Rechargeable and flexible aqueous batteries (ABs) have emerged as one of promising energy devices which is primarily due to the safety, environmental friendliness and economic efficiency. However, because of the freezing behavior of aqueous electrolytes, most ABs possess poor performance when the working temperature drops below zero. To solve this problem, a gel polymer electrolyte (GPE) with high ionic conductivity (IC) and frost-resistance is designed for aqueous Zn-Li hybrid batteries by a biomass-based polymers complex consisting of carboxyl modified sodium alginate (SA) and zwitterionic betaine (BA). Introducing iminodiacetic acid to enrich -COOH groups along the SA main chains could improve IC of the prepared GPEs to 41.27 and 20.96 mS cm-1 at 20 and -20 °C, respectively. At -20 °C, the discharge capacity of the resultant cell is two times higher than that of the liquid electrolyte-based cell, and the cell presents a capacity retention of 91.6 % after 300 charge/discharge cycles at 1 C. This proposed strategy greatly improve the IC of GPEs at freezing temperature, which is expected to broaden the practical application of GPEs in wide range of temperature.

A novel hybrid battery thermal management system using TPMS structure and delayed cooling scheme

Phase change material (PCM) cooling plays an important role in battery thermal management systems (BTMS). However, PCM has been suffering from low thermal conductivity and inefficient latent heat recovery. Based on this, this study designs a hybrid BTMS combining triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS), PCM, and liquid cooling, and proposes a cooling scheme that determines the operating time of the coolant based on the battery temperature. The system aims to improve the utilization of PCM in two different ways: structural design and cooling scheme. Numerical analysis was used to compare the effects of different structures on the melting rate of PCM and to study the thermal performance of the battery module under various cooling schemes. The results show that the effective thermal conductivity of PCM/TPMS composites reaches 21 W/(m·K), which can effectively enhance the heat absorption rate of PCM. In particular, the I-graph-and-wrapped-package (IWP) structure combined with PCM is the most effective. Under the continuous cooling scheme, when the coolant flow rate is 0.04 m/s, the temperature of the battery at a 3C discharge rate can be controlled at 308.28 K, but the PCM utilization rate is only 0.25. After adopting the delayed cooling scheme, the performance of the BTMS cooling remains excellent, with the battery temperature at only 309.88 K and the liquid phase rate of PCM reaching 0.97. For the first time, the heat absorbed by passive cooling is comparable to that of active cooling in the BTMS heat absorption energy distribution, with a 73 % reduction in pumping energy consumption. Furthermore, under cycling conditions, the delayed cooling scheme still performs well, keeping the battery temperature below 313.15 K. In addition, it should be noted that the flow rate of the coolant should be determined by the charging rate. Additionally, the BTMS is capable of addressing the heat dissipation challenges in different ambient temperatures. This study can guide for the design of PCM in hybrid BTMS.