Hungarian State Research Articles

HISTORICAL-STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF LINGUISTIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE SLAVIC POPULATION OF TRANSCARPATHIA DURING THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY (1867–1918)

Using the historical-structural method, the article outlines the linguistic processes of the Transcarpathian region during the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. For a long time in Europe, the national language and its codified dialect were not a defining element of people’s identification, much more important was, for example, religious affiliation. However, when language became the most important symbol of national identity, the international language ideology was replaced by vernacularization and the ideology of linguistic nationalism, and then local national languages came to the fore. In Hungary, as part of this long process, Latin and German were gradually replaced by Hungarian in those spheres of public life that were under the direct influence of the state (for example, administrative management and education). A sharp conflict between the Hungarian state and the minorities did not arise until the central government wanted to extend the scope of the use of the Hungarian language to the internal linguistic sphere of the non-Hungarian population. Based on this historical framework, a set of different factors that influenced language policy in the region is analyzed, namely the concept of language policy of the state, the ethno-political features of the region, and the local elites’ own cultural and national movement. Parallel to the processes of national awakening among Carpatho-Ruthenians, the desire to use their native language grew stronger, and the national and language movements of other Slavic nations living on Hungarian territory, including Serbs and Slovaks, were an example. The evolution of national ideas was also helped by the fact that Enlightenment rationalism was replaced by Romanticism, which contributed to the spread of national romanticism and the «finding» of one’s own language and popular culture. It is accepted that Hungarian linguistic and national policy was subordinated to the task of preserving territories: the Hungarian government sought to keep the national regions, including Transcarpathia, within Hungary by expanding their national-cultural and linguistic rights.

Military supplies and the population at the beginning of the Rákóczi war of independence (1703–1704)

The article highlights that in the first two years of Rákóczi’s War of Independence, the problems of military supply arose, in the solution of which the Prince was also strongly involved. In his decrees, he ordered the leading officials and war commissioners of the county to ensure the continuous supply of the troops, because the soldiers fighting for the independence of their country could not and should not suffer shortages at the front. Feeding the Kuruc army and supplying the cavalry troops, which were indispensable in the battles of the time, was a burden on the shoulders of the common population during the years of warfare. The efforts of the population for the benefit of the homeland were a great burden for the people, as the imperial and rebel armies sometimes tried to provide food from the same area. In the first years of the War of Independence, the present-day Transcarpathian region ensured the supply of food and forage to the troops besieging the region's fortresses (Mukachevo, Uzhhorod, Satu Mare). As the siege of Satu Mare, for example, lasted nearly a year and a half, the Hungarian state administration, which was gradually being built up in Rákóczi’s state, solved this multifaceted task through military commissioners. Without this background work, it would not have been possible to maintain the positions built up and there would have been no chance of occupying the militarily significant fortifications. It is known that in addition to the Hungarians, there was a significant Ruthenian and Romanian-speaking population in this area, who also contributed to the supply of Rákóczi’s troops. Through the decrees of Ferenc Rákóczi II, which can be found in the State Archives of the Transcarpathian Region, he organized the supply of the army, created tax districts, where the procedure for the levies and the payments were clearly established. The «Transcarpathian» counties (Uzh, Ugocha, Bereg, Maramuresh) were under the jurisdiction of the military commissioner György Orosz, who did his utmost to provide food and forage for the Kuruc army, which fought with varying success. Finally, the number of soldiers of the Kurucs who were sent to the various battlefields of the War of Independence from the territory of present-day Transcarpathia and the number of soldiers that our region was able to supply in proportion to the number of soldiers will be pointed out. The study explores the details of the cooperation between the military and the population, using archival sources.

Borderline Syndrome in Fiume: The Clash of Local and Imperial Interests

As the only seaport city of the Hungarian Kingdom, Fiume (present day Rijeka, Croatia) was a key area for policies implemented by the central government in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. It was a multi-ethnic hub, an economic, social, political and cultural center, and a highly intensive contact zone where people from various parts of world with different interests and aims met. Fiume was a border, a filter, and a frontier. Moreover, it was an important area in the Hungarian state-defense system. Three important factors deserve particular attention. First, that Fiume was physically enclosed within the Croatian Kingdom, and very much as if it had been an enclave, it did not have common borders with Hungary. Second, due to the way the Hungarian government exercised power and devised its strategies to create a support base (and also because of a fear of efforts towards expansion by Slavs), the government created an Italian-speaking political elite that ruled over Fiume. Third, Fiume enjoyed extraordinarily wide municipal autonomy which included the right to maintain public order and security in the city. The local elites wanted to preserve these rights from the encroaching state. My study has two purposes. First, I discuss the main reasons for the establishment of the border police. Why was it such a vital question for the Hungarian state at the national and the local level, and why did Fiume became the most problematic element in this issue? I highlight how and why the problem of the border police emerged as one of the most crucial conflicts in relations between the state and its port city.

Law-Conservative Ideology of Orban’s Government the Main Reason for the Systemic Conflict between the EU and Hungary

The Ukrainian-Russian war, which began on February 24, 2022, accelerated Ukraine’s process of becoming a member of the European Union. In recent months Kyiv approached one step closer to the EU membership. Of course, the path to full membership into the European Community is long and thorny. But today we must be aware of what difficulties and problems await Ukraine when it acquires this status. Therefore, the task of studying the experience of our neighbours, who have been within the EU and NATO since 2004, is extremely important and relevant for both domestic and foreign policy of Ukraine.The aim of the article is to analyze the experience of Hungary within the European Union and the problems and contradictions that have arisen between Budapest and Brussels during the years of Hungarian membership. It is also important to find out the causes of the conflict between the EU and Hungary in order to prepare the Ukrainian society and the government already today to prevent the recurrence of Hungarian mistakes. As a result of the analysis in this article of the influence of the rightwing conservative ideology of Viktor Orban`s government on Hungary’s relations with the EU, it was found, that this is the main cause of acute conflicts that arise from time to time between the parties. The European Union, whose main ideology is liberalism, absolutely does not accept the enshrinement in the Hungarian Fundamental Law that one religion is dominant in the country, the prerogative of the Hungarian national minority living abroad to demand collective rights, intolerance of same-sex marriages and doubts about the rights on abortion. It was also found that Hungary has had a dictatorship of the constitutional majority in the National Assembly since 2010, which allows Viktor Orban`s government to pass any laws in support of his course to establish illiberal democracy in the country. It is confirmed that despite sharp criticism from Brussels of the Hungarian government coalition’s policy, Budapest continues to pursue its policy of strengthening the governance of democracy and public sector reform towards centralization, returning to the conservative traditions of the Hungarian state, curtailing democratic governance and strengthening authoritarian trends. All this has led to the imposition of the EU sanctions on Hungary in the form of cuts in funding for certain programs, sharp criticism of the EU leaders, and even threats to terminate membership in the organization. The author used the following methods preparing the article: structural and functional; conflict theory; behaviorism; historical; informal (traditional) document analysis. Further research on this topic is promising due to Ukraine’s future membership in the EU. From a practical point of view, this article can be used in the activities of those government agencies that are currently working on Ukraine’s European integration into the EU, as well as units of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine, which take care of further development of Ukrainian-Hungarian relations

Community and Invisible Work at the Szkéné Collective: Methodological Questions on Researching Amateur Theatres during the 1960s and 1970s

The essay aims at highlighting the methodological challenges of researching amateur theatres under Hungarian state socialism, including the accessibility of documents in official archives, leading and sometimes misleading narratives of historiography, and the emerging role of oral history interviews and personal collections. Focusing on the history of the university theatre at Budapest University of Technology, namely, the Szkéné Collective, the case study investigates the dynamics of invisible work, collective creation, and the role of female participants between 1962 and 1973. In order to acknowledge the role of community in amateur theatre practices, it is essential to readdress the hierarchical understanding of a collective, and search for the usually hidden stories of shared creativity and labour.

The liquidation of the Russophile organization “Shkol’naya Pomoshch’” (“The School Help”) in the context of the national and cultural life of Subcarpathian Rus’ during the period of the Hungarian occupation (1938–1944)

The article is devoted to the analysis of the nature of the cultural and educational societies of Subcarpathian Rus’ (primarily the Russophile organization “Shkol’naya Pomoshch’” (“The School Help”)) between the wars and during the period of the Hungarian rule. The activities of the organizations were determined by the complex national and cultural landscape of the region, the presence of several models for identifying of the local East Slavic population. The liquidation of “Shkol’naya Pomoshch’” corresponded to the main guidelines of the national and cultural policy of the Hungarian authorities, aimed to popularize the idea of the existence of a separate Rusyn people loyal to the Hungarian state among the population of Subcarpathian Rus’. The basis of the source base of the work were the documents of the Hungarian National Archives and the State Archives of the Transcarpathian Region (Ukraine). In particular, the reports of the Hungarian officials E. Malinics, J. Torockói, J. Dyurich on the nature of the activities of “Shkol’naya Pomoshch’” are analyzed in detail. Representatives of the Hungarian administration in Subcarpathian Rus’ considered the activity of this influential Russophile structure, which called into question the correctness of the national and cultural policy of Budapest in the region, extremely undesirable. The Russophiles, a significant part of whom during the interwar period acted in the revisionist interests of Budapest and counted on a positive attitude from the new authorities after the annexation of the region to Hungary, were deceived in their expectations. After the liquidation of “Shkol’naya Pomoshch’”, its property in 1941 was given to “Podkarpatskoe obshchestvo nauk” (“The Subcarpathian Society of Sciences”), whose members worked on the scientific justification for the existence of a separate Rusyn people.

Production and primary processing of grain in the Ung, Bereg, Ugocha and Maramoros counties in the Middle Ages

The present research deals with the medieval grain production and the primary processing of it in Ung, Bereg, Ugocsa and Maramures counties. In the Middle Ages, the primary foodstuff was bread, which could be made from a variety of grains. In today's Transcarpathia, bread was made primarily using wheat and rye, which were crucial parts of the everyday eating. After the founding of the Hungarian state, the branch of the food production underwent a transformation, namely the animal-husbandry was slowly replaced by tillage. With the continuous development of the village system, indoor and outdoor farming were also spreading. Grain was grown on arable land away from the house, which has been a high priority. In order to understand the system based on family farming, principally the number of family members must be calculated, and then the average number of settlements follows from the obtained data, which gives the amount of land required per families and settlements to produce grain for bread. The bread was baked in a two-week cycle, when the family gained 30 kg. The growing crops for bread is the first stage of the process, which is followed by milling, i.e. the second stage. Grinding took place in mills, of which several varieties are separated. In the case of our region, watermills were widespread, of which there are also several types. We separate a stream mill and a floating mill from water mills. In the case of our region, both varieties have been identified. The mills did not work all year round, they could only work at the proper water level. Therefore, neither in winter cold nor in summer the mill could not work, so the grinding of flour needed for bread took place mainly in spring and autumn. Mills were one of the most complex technological machines of the time, the operation and maintenance of which required a specialist with relevant knowledge. Mills can be used for grinding grain, as well as for sawing and grinding wood. By examining the available resources, tens of mills were localized in the four counties, which also sheds light on the technological development of the age.

Načrti avtonomne in upravne organiziranosti Slovenske krajine v obdobju Károlyijeve ljudske republike (od novembra 1918 do marca 1919)

The article discusses a specific field of the history of the Prekmurje Slovenes and the Prekmurje area itself, from the end of the First World War to the formation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic, namely attempts to find a solution for the administrative or autonomous organization of the Slovene community there, to keep the Prekmurje area as a part of the Hungarian state. Various Slovene and Hungarian studies have mentioned contents related to attempts at the autonomous or administrative organization of the Slovene community (probably most thoroughly written by László Kővágó and Miroslav Kokolj). However, there have been almost no articles that would focus directly on this topic. In the context of the preparation of this article we have primarily processed the Hungarian and Slovene archive resources (as well as some newly researched ones), published local newspapers from that period (especially Novine and Muraszombat és vidéke) and a part of literature, where the authors – allthough the studies were mostly ideologically oriented – also devoted major attention to substantive questions of the planned autonomous and administrative arrangements of Prekmurje Slovenes.

“In the Grasp of the Pan-Slavic Octopus”*: Hungarian Nation Building in the Shadow of Pan-Slavism Until the 1848 Revolution

This study analyzes the impacts that fear of Pan-Slavism had on Hungarian politics and how this fear was politically instrumentalized in the 1840s and during the 1848 Revolution. Pan-Slavism was the best-known image of the enemy and is associated with the fear of the Russian Empire. The fear of Russia and Pan-Slavism permeated the thinking of the Hungarian reform generation, and together with the vision of national death, had an impact on politics. In addition to its impact on nation- and state-building, the fear of Pan-Slavism also served as an argument in favor of socio-political reforms. The Hungarian political elite aspired to create a national state on the French model, and the instrumentalized use of Pan-Slavism was in many cases used to justify measures intended to speed up the formation of a Hungarian national state.

INVESTIGATION OF THE GLUED INSULATED RAIL JOINTS APPLIED TO CWR TRACKS

This article summarizes the research results related to our own conducted extensive laboratory tests of polymer composite and steel fishplated glued insulated rail joints (GIRJs), namely axial tensile tests as well as vertical static and dynamic tests. The investigation dealt with the examination of GIRJs assembled with steel and special glass-fiber reinforced plastic (polymer composite) fishplates, both of them for CWR railway tracks (i.e. so-called gapless tracks or, in other words, railway tracks with continuously welded rails). The exact rail joint types were MTH-P and MTH-AP, consistently. The MTH P types have been commonly applied for many years in the CWR tracks in Europe, mainly in Hungary. The MTH-AP rail joints consist of fishplates that are produced by the APATECH factory (Russia). They are made of a fiberglass-amplified polymer composite material at high pressure and controlled temperature. This solution can eliminate electrical fishplate lock and early fatigue failures just as it can ensure adequate electrical insulation. The advantage of such rail joints can be that they are probably able to ensure the substitution of the glued insulated rail joints with relatively expensive steel fishplates currently applied by railway companies, e.g. Hungarian State Railways (MÁV). The aim of the mentioned research summarized in this paper is to formulate recommendations on technical applicability and on the technological instructions that are useful in everyday railway operation practice on the basis of the measurements and tests carried out on rail joints in laboratory.

National Icon and Cultural Ambassador: Zoltán Kodály in the Musical Life of State Socialist Hungary

Abstract In my paper, I wish to raise questions pertinent to the changing position of the composer, ethnomusicologist and musical educationalist Zoltan Kodály in the musical and cultural life of the Stalinist and post-Stalinist periods of Hungarian state socialism. Owing to his folkloristic and conservative musical style, and also his identity as “an educator of the people,” Kodály established his status as a fellow traveller of statesocialism in the early 1950s. The easiest way in Hungarian composition to satisfy the expectations of the political power, as inspired by Zhdanov’s aesthetics, was to follow the style of Kodály. At the same time, Kodály sustained his reputation as a “genuine” national icon whose music was capable of expressing, even if in riddle form, anti-Stalinist sentiments in the eyes of various political and cultural circles, especially after 1953. In spite of the fact that Kodály did not take any active part in the political struggles in the revolution of 1956, he was named as a candidate for head of state by important revolutionary forces. Following the suppression of the revolution, the restored state socialist political power revised its practices in the field of art. The fact that the new cultural policy gave up the idea of a unified Hungarian art which is “national in form and socialist in content,” resulted in a temporary weakening of Kodály’s position. Kodály’s status was precarious, subjected to a challenge by avant-garde trends in composition and competing paradigms of musical education. From the early 1960s, however, when both the Western and Eastern political systems proposed strategies for long-term coexistence, Kodály gained a new function from the perspective of the political power. In Western cultural circles Kodály sustained a reputation as one of the great European humanists, and his music educational method generated a strong professional interest globally, and particularly in the usa. My paper also examines the cultural political impact of Kodály’s visit to Moscow in 1963. Kodály seems to have functioned as a mediator across the political divide. He had achieved great personal successes during his tours to the political West, and this reinforced his position in Hungary.

Use of ICT Tools in Professional Training of Future Primary School Teachers in Studying the Ukrainian Language by Professional Orientation

The article considers ICT tools used in the educational process of training future primary school teachers at the Ferenc Rakoczi II Transcarpathian Hungarian Institute and Mukachevo State University in teaching the disciplines «Ukrainian language for professional purposes». The purpose of the article is to consider the benefits of using ICT in the educational process and give examples of their use for the training of future primary school teachers. Methods. In the process of experimental work the following research methods were used: theoretical: analysis, comparison, systematization, generalization; empirical: observations, surveys. The results. Means and forms of computer use in classes are defined as following: use of media resources as a source of information; computer support of the teacher's activity at different stages of the lesson; organization of students' project activities. The advantages of using ICT are highlighted, namely: individualization of education; intensification of students' self-study work; increasing the volume of tasks performed in the classroom, expanding information flows when using the Internet; increase of motivation and cognitive activity due to the variety of forms of work, the possibility of including the game moment. Emphasis is placed on using the LearningApps.org program, which is designed to support learning and teaching through small public interactive exercises. Using the Learning Apps interactive task designer, a number of tasks that are used in Ukrainian language classes for professional purposes have been developed. The authors noted that both teachers and students can create interactive modules based on ready-made templates. The application for creating educational projects Kahoot is considered. With its help you can create a test, survey, educational game or arrange a marathon of knowledge. The application works both in the desktop version and on smartphones. It is proposed to use different types of Kahoot. The classic version of Kahoot (Classic Kahoot) is a quiz-competition between individual students of the group. Team Kahoot is a team game (the group is divided into several teams, and each team gives their answers after discussing them). Blind Kahoot allows us to submit new material in an unusual way, this forces students not to be passive participants in the process. Connected Kahoot is a game mode where groups from different educational institutions participate. Ghost Kahoot allows students to once again take part in the same quiz and compete with themselves. The next Learner to Leaders Kahoot mode is an option for the most gifted and active students who want to demonstrate their knowledge and skills. Research activities on this topic were carried out through the analysis of scientific and pedagogical literature and the results of research on the training of future primary school teachers. Conclusions. The use of ICT in the educational process of future primary school teachers contributes to the development of motivation and interest of students to study the discipline «Ukrainian language for professional purposes».

The Hungarian-Jewish Social Contract, its Rupture, and Jewish Death Rituals

This article explores the supposedly reciprocal social contract between “Greater Hungary” and its Jewish population from the “Golden Age” of the Dual Monarchy to its rupture in the Holocaust. The afterlife of this broken contract will be addressed through the upkeep and neglect of cemeteries in Subcarpathia and Hungary proper. Along the way, I present memoiristic vignettes that illustrate the challenge of loyalty to state / military authority and death rituals in the time of the 1918-1919 Hungarian-Romanian War, Jewish mourning in the context of Czechoslovakia’s loss of Subcarpathia, and the disjuncture between the normal praxis of death ritual and the spectre of Auschwitz-Birkenau, as well as the ritual contrast to Hungarian Jews who were deported, but not to Auschwitz. I also turn to the historical research of Tim Cole and Daniel Rosenthal, in conjunction with Hungarian (especially North-Transylvanian) Holocaust memoirs, to reflect on Holocaust-era suicide as a mode of victims’ resistance to their brutalization by Hungarian gendarmes -- the pinnacle of the betrayal of the erstwhile contract between Hungarian state authority and its Jewish population.

The post-2010 ‘Democratic Rule of Law’ practice of the Hungarian Constitutional Court under a rule by law governance

AbstractThe paper focuses on the democratic rule of law principle as it appeared in the practice of the Hungarian Constitutional Court under the 1989 Constitution and the 2012 Fundamental Law. The rule of law doctrine had a paramount role in the argumentation of the Court in the 1990s as a normative fact and a programme of the Hungarian state. Under the Fundamental Law introduced in 2012, however, it has been somewhat relegated to the background in case law. The study first recalls the main achievements and characteristics of the democratic rule of law state interpretations of the Constitutional Court and then focuses on developments since the introduction of the Fundamental Law. On the one hand, it outlines the constitutional and institutional capacity of the court regarding the protection of the rule of law principle. On the other hand, it reveals the characteristics of the post-FL interpretation through case studies in the field of legal certainty and judicial independence, both of which were representative elements of the pre-2010 constitutional practice from the point of view of the democratic rule of law state doctrine.

Economy and ethics in the cosmic process⋆

AbstractWhen T.H. Huxley lectured on evolution and ethics in 1893, his critique of the amoral laws of the ‘cosmic process’ left his audience puzzled. While Huxley paid little attention to political and economic institutions, this article draws attention to the historical materialism of that era and its twentieth‐century legacies. Empirically, it analyses the rise and fall of a Hungarian state farm with reference to the comparative literature on twentieth‐century socialist societies. Theoretically, socialism is considered as the combination of a materialist philosophy of history with an axial ethical impulse. In the aftermath of the collapse of the Eurasian socialist order in the 1990s, we can see why Huxley was right to deplore the ‘fanatical individualism’ of his age. His humanism resembles that of the early Karl Marx and he stands closer to Émile Durkheim than to contemporary currents in the anthropology of ethics.

Condition Assessment of Solar Modules by Flash Test and Electroluminescence Test

The Hungarian society and the Hungarian state are constantly increasing their solar capacity. More and more solar power plants are being put into operation. The largest of these has a 100 MW peak capacity. Such power plants do not require constant maintenance. However, in the case of low productivity, a conditional assessment is required. The reason for production loss can also be manufacturing, installation, and operational errors. A flying drone was used for finding failures by thermographic scouting. Furthermore, electroluminescent (EL) and flash tests give a comprehensive view of the real state of the modules in a mobile laboratory. We had the opportunity to summarize these test results of more than a thousand modules operating in a solar power plant. The report on the power plant shows that a significant part of the modules became unusable in a short time. After four years, 10% of the 260 Wp modules suffered a performance reduction of more than 10%.

A szórvány magyar tanköteles gyermekek családon kívüli elhelyezése Baranyában az 1941–1942-es tanévben

The framework for the placing of Hungarian compulsory school children outside the family was based on the 25.360/1941. Religion and Public Education Ministerial decree, which constituted new provisions from the 1941/1942 school year for the education of native Hungarian children living in non-Hungarian environment. The reason for issuing the decree was the growing demand of the nationalities for education in their native language, which the Hungarian state – after the failure of the unified education system introduced in 1935 – made available to them in 1941. This measure was supported by nationalities as well, but at the same time we must not forget that the Horthy-era represented a strong national policy, and the patriotic, national education began in elementary school. Thus, the education of Hungarian children could not be neglected while striving to fulfil the needs of nationalities. According to paragraph 1 of the 25.360/1941. Religion and Public Education Ministerial decree on the education of Hungarian children: ‘A native Hungarian compulsory school child living in Hungary, who stays in a not native Hungarian environment must be educated in a Hungarian school or class, by a traveling teacher, in a Hungarian boarding school, or in another native Hungarian environment.’ The placing of children outside the family was only necessary if there was no school with Hungarian educational language in the municipality, because in that case ‘a native Hungarian child living in the municipality (city) can only be sent by his or her tutelary to such a school, until reaching the age of compulsory schooling.’ In accordance with the decree, from the summer of 1941 the Education Inspectorate collected data on the native Hungarian compulsory school children who lived in a non-Hungarian environment to provide them enrolment elsewhere. The first version of the options listed in the decree (Hungarian school or class in municipality) is not the subject of the study, since in that case, the child remains in the family. The second version – a traveling teacher – would not cause change either, but I did not find any example of this in the archives anyway. What may be more interesting in the terms of Family law is the placing in a boarding school or with a family of a relative or acquaintance in native Hungarian environment - this is indicated by the phrase in an otherwise ‘native Hungarian environment’. I give examples of these cases – boarding school and placement in Hungarian families – from practice based on archival records.

A házasságon kívül született gyermek jogállása különös tekintettel a tartásdíj kiszabásának bírói gyakorlatára 1945 és 1950 között Magyarországon

There was a legal differentiation between children born in and out of wedlock in 1945. The Hungarian State recognised that this differentiation was outdated, thus the Act XXIX of 1946 on the legal status of children born out of wedlock came into force on June 7, 1947. The aims of the Act were that it should cease the differentiation between children born in and out of wedlock and their legal status shall be equal to legitimate children, and the children born out of wedlock (illegitimate children) shall be related to their fathers and their fathers’ kin. It was the first comprehensive regulation regarding child support that came into effect. The study presents the regulations of child support between 1945 and 1950 in Hungary and discloses the court practice regarding child support of the District Court of Zalaegerszeg in the designated period.

The Fortunes of Hungarian Children’s Literature at Home and in the English-Speaking World

This paper asks why so few works of Hungarian children’s literature have made it to publication in English-speaking countries. It finds that few translated children’s books make it onto the English-language market and those translations that are successful mainly appear in major European languages. Representation at the Bologna Children’s Book Fair has been dogged by a lack of financial resources and polish while Hungarian State funding has lacked continuity. Nearly all the English translations of Hungarian children’s books available today have been published in Hungary, although a book will occasionally find its way to foreign publishers by informal means. This paper also follows the development of Hungarian children’s literature from the late nineteenth century to the present day, noting changes in terms of character, subject matter and attitudes to diversity and use of the fairy-tale tradition. It outlines one recent controversy surrounding the publication of Meseország mindenkié [’Storyland for Everybody’], a book which aims, in contrast to the current regime’s ideology, to represent the marginalized in Hungarian society. It also details recent clashes sparked by the new Hungarian National School Curriculum and one writer’s feminist critique of a classic text.

Research on Hungarian Female Teachers' Mental Hygiene State With Special Regard to the Development of their Professional and Female Identity

We worked with the fact that, nowadays, the majority of teachers in schools are female, so the aim of our research became to assess the general state of mental hygiene in female teachers, and its causal relations. In this study we presented the may-sided, diversified roots of the research, based on positive, Jungian and personal psychology, educational researches on teachers personality, gender issues in education. We also exhibited the connected studies on stress and burn out mostly in connection to teachers and the field of education. The research has a specific focus on female teachers' mental hygiene states in connection with their developing professional and female identity. We pointed out some connections of our main points of examination and the Finnish teacher training practice, too. As a main hypothesis we presume that just a certain group of female teachers are in a state of fragile mental hygiene. In the detailed hypotheses we are looking for evidence that the mental hygiene state shows differences between certain groups among female teachers. The best way for examination appeared to be by using two validated (MBI-ES, LOT-R) and two personal creating questionnaires (BÉIK, SzSzK, only in Hungarian), as a comparative survey. On the whole, our starting assumption has been proved, that female teachers' mental hygiene state in our meaning the level of burnout and psychological well-being are in connection with the level of the elaboration of their professional and female identity.