Hungarian Foreign Policy Research Articles

Wedged between East and West - The chances of an interest-based Hungarian foreign policy and the war in Ukraine

Hungarian foreign policy has been in the international spotlight, raising doubts about its direction. The purpose of this article is to highlight the contradictions between an interest-based and a value-based foreign policy. A theoretical introduction is followed by a brief analysis of the elements of a pragmatic foreign policy. At the same time, the second part of the paper presents a short case study from the Western Balkans. The Hungarian position on two countries, Kosovo and Serbia, will be analysed, not forgetting that these two countries are examples of the changes that have taken place in the relations between Hungary and Serbia. Despite earlier nationalist tensions, Serbia has become Hungary's almost sole ally in the region, putting the minority issue in the background and adopting a pragmatic approach. In this essay, we will also try to identify the considerations that guided Hungarian diplomacy in its position towards the West. Finally, we will discuss the extent to which the original goal of "occupying Brussels" was realistic and the consequences of Hungary's pragmatic foreign policy.

George F. Kennan and Hungary: A Cold War Visionary and a “remarkable people with rich civilizational qualities”

Abstract Although George F. Kennan hardly needs an introduction, this article revisits his career. He was the “father” of the containment doctrine, even if he did not accept that title because he believed the successive American governments debauched his murky idea about how to oppose the Soviet Union. Many things are known about Kennan—both his professional and private life—but some small additions are still missing. This essay investigates his relations with, and ideas about Hungary, which so far have earned passing mentions at best. This is not surprising because Hungary rarely became a central issue during the Cold War—with 1956 as an obvious exception—so scholars focused mainly on Kennan, the Russian expert and cold warrior. Still, occasionally Hungary received Kennan’s attention throughout his long career: he made observations and took notes on Hungary, Hungarian foreign policy, and Hungarians as early as the eve of World War II, and he continued to do so as late as Hungary’s joining NATO at the end of the 1990s. These were sometimes indirect assumptions, long-distance observations, or the results of on-site experience. It is interesting to see how the famously realist Kennan approached Hungary and the Hungarian questions throughout more than half a century. His relationship with either Hungary or Hungarians, however, has never been within the scope of an academic study, so this article serves as the basis for possible future endeavors into that direction. By introducing Kennan’s episodic views and impressions regarding Hungary in the larger part of the twentieth century, the article fills a small but important gap in the growing field of the history of American–Hungarian relations and adds to the portrait of Kennan. (ZP)

“Eastern Opening” Policy as Political Marketing: Populism and Hungary’s Relations with China under the Orbán Government

ABSTRACT In this study, we focus on the nexus between the populist domestic politics of Hungary and the Hungarian foreign policy. We find that conventional explanations involving pragmatism and nationalism are limited, so we take the analytical approach of political marketing to understand the rhetoric and behavior of the Orbán government, with special reference to its relations with China. We argue that through its high-profile “Opening to the East” policy, the Orbán government attempted, with mixed outcomes, to communicate its foreign policy promises and results as persuasion and contestation to its domestic audience largely for its own political gains.

Pragmatic foreign policy of Hungary in the shadow of the Russian-Ukrainian war

The steps of the foreign policy of the Hungarian government are considered a series of interest-driven, super-pragmatic decisions that consist of ideology-based considerations, but mainly serve pure political and economic interests to broaden the room for international manoeuvres. This study explains the driving forces of pragmatic Hungarian foreign policy thinking, especially how this idea shifted in the light of the Russian-Ukrainian war as the most overwhelming crisis for Europe. The consistent behaviour of Hungarian diplomacy and mutual distrust increased the tension between Hungary and its allies, the EU, and NATO. The analysis used the elements of critical discourse analysis to introduce and help understand the foreign policy strategy of Hungary.

“Pro arduis negociis destinandum” – Papal Delegates and the Neapolitan Succession (1328–1352)

The Neapolitan succession was one of the most problematic issues of Hungarian foreign policy in the Angevin period. As has been emphasized in the secondary literature, the Holy See, especially Pope John XXII (1316–1334) and Clement VI (1342–1352), played an active role in the negotiations between the Hungarian and the Neapolitan crowns. The diplomatic mediation of the papal court was carried out mainly by papal delegates with different types of authorizations. The primary aim of the present paper is to examine the details of these commissions and reveal who the clerics appointed by the Holy See to handle this delicate diplomatic matter were, what title they were given for the time of their delegations, and most importantly, what the outcomes of their commissions were. The paper focuses on the time when the papacy was most actively involved in the diplomatic events concerning the Neapolitan succession, namely from the death of Charles, duke of Calabria, the sole heir of Robert, king of Naples (1328), until the agreement of Joanna I and Louis I in 1352.

The quest for diversification in Hungarian foreign policy: Hungary’s ‘Eastern opening’ and the Turkic States

Macaristan 1989 sonrasında başlayan Üçüncü Cumhuriyet dönemi ile İkinci Dünya Savaşı’nın akabinde edindiği Doğu Bloku üyesi sosyalist ülke hüviyetinden çıkarak Avrupa ile bütünleşmeye dayalı bir dış politika anlayışına geçiş yapmıştır. Demokrasi ve piyasa ekonomisine dayanan geçiş süreci ile vuku bulan Avrupa-Atlantik ülkeleri ile bütünleşme politikası, ülkenin Batılı uluslararası kuruluşlarına üyelikleri ile sağlamlaştırılmıştır. Macaristan’da 2010 yılındaki seçimlerde hâlâ iktidarda olan Fidesz–Macar Yurttaş Birliği’nin iktidara gelmesi ile ülkenin dış politikası çeşitlenerek çok boyutlu hâle gelmeye başlamıştır. Mezkûr dönemde ülkenin “Doğu Açılımı” olarak adlandırılan politikası, Üçüncü Cumhuriyet döneminde Batı eksenli şekillenen dış politikasına Doğu ülkelerinin tekrardan eklemlenmesini öngörmüştür. Macaristan, Doğu Açılımı politikasıyla Türk dünyası ülkeleriyle de yakın ilişkiler kurmuştur. Bu çalışma, şimdiye kadar Türkçe literatürde üzerinde yeterince durulmayan Doğu Açılımı politikasının Türk dünyası ülkeleri ile ilişkilerde oluşturduğu dinamikleri sorgulayarak ilgili alana katkı sunmayı amaçlamaktadır.

Эволюционный путь внешней политики современной Венгрии

Introduction. The foreign policy of modern Hungary has passed through several stages of development since the fall of socialism. The purpose of this article is to clarify the qualitative characteristics of the points of evolution that have determined the content of Hungarian foreign policy. Today, it is not enough to define the image of Hungarian foreign policy solely in terms of pan-European or North Atlantic solidarity. A more careful and thoughtful study of the dynamics of the foreign policy doctrine of Budapest is required. Methods and Materials. Our main task is to clarify the periodization of the process of Hungary’s foreign policy development. The proposed periodization is carried out in a complex manner, based on several reasons and correlating their influence on each of the allocated time periods. The information array was composed of news for April 2010 – August 2022, based on a digest of news from Hungarian news agencies. Analysis. The author identifies five main periods in the development of Hungary’s foreign policy: the transitional period; the imperative period; the period of Euro-Atlantic romanticism; the period of seeking regional balance; and the period of Euroscepticism and Easternization. Each of these periods is characterized by an assessment of the conceptual content of international politics, the continuity of the foreign policy course, and the change in emphasis of the current policy. Results. Obviously, the current period of development is nearing its end, and in the medium term, Hungarian foreign policy itself will take the form of several relatively balanced concentric circles in the process of forming a polycentric world. At the same time, the European and American orientations will continue to be of paramount importance for Hungary. The growing inertia of the decline in the intensity of Russian-Hungarian relations seems to be the main characteristic of the interaction between the two countries.

SEEKING COALITION IN EUROPE AGAINST THE SUBLIME PORTE ON THE EVE OF THE BATTLE OF MOHACS AND HUNGARY

The place of the Hungarian Kingdom before Mohacs in Europe and its political maneuverability are of great importance in the comprehensive analysis of Ottoman-Hungarian connections. Thus, the place occupied by the Buda administration in European diplomacy and its attempts to maintain its political presence against the Sublime Porte [Dîvân-ı Hümâyûn] will be clearly revealed. In this way, developments that have a direct impact on Hungarian foreign policy are centered in this study. The time interval was determined as the years 1521-1522. Thus, the Ottoman raids that led to the conquest of Hungary were accepted as the starting point. The events were brought up to the conquest of Rhodes, which shook the balance of power in Europe and pointed out that the Hungarian Kingdom could not hold out any longer. In the aforementioned process, it was not aimed to review the signs of internal crisis in Hungary. For this reason, the domestic political and economic conditions of the country were not mentioned. Finally, the political and military approach of the Western European monarchs to the Hungarian Kingdom is discussed. In addition, the complex nature of multi-layered relations and the loneliness of Hungary due to being away from the west of Europe were tried to be reflected. As a matter of fact, it cannot be said that the only factor in Hungary’s foreign policy was the Ottoman threat until the conquest efforts of Sultan Suleiman. Despite the Turkish threat, the Hungarian kings Sigismund, Matthias Corvinus and to some extent the Jagiellonian Dynasty are not only observers but also guides in European politics. In the relevant context, the analyzes are intended to illustrate the characteristics of the political relationship network in during the collapse of the Hungarian Kingdom.

Balázs Ablonczy. Ismeretlen Trianon: Az összeomlás és a békeszerződés történetei, 1918–1921 [Unknown Trianon: histories of the collapse and the peace treaty, 1918–21

Balázs Ablonczy. <i>Ismeretlen Trianon: Az összeomlás és a békeszerződés történetei, 1918–1921</i> [Unknown Trianon: histories of the collapse and the peace treaty, 1918–21

Go south! – The establishment of Hungarian–Ethiopian diplomatic relations in 1959-1960

Abstract In the mid-1950s, the Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs made an effort to break free of the isolation brought about by the military defeat and communist takeover after WWII. One of the main priorities of Hungarian foreign policy was the developing world, including Africa. Although the revolution and subsequent reprisals of 1956 temporarily halted the opening up, at the end of the decade Hungary launched a new diplomatic offensive. Ethiopia, which symbolized African independence and power, was among the main targets. In spite of the setbacks and challenges, and thanks to the determination of Hungarian diplomats, Hungarian-Ethiopian relations were normalized in 1959–60. This paper examines this process by analyzing documents from the Hungarian National Archive and explains why establishing diplomatic connections proved valuable to both parties.

Populist Capture of Foreign Policy Institutions: The Orbán Government and the De‐Europeanization of Hungarian Foreign Policy

AbstractDespite a growing interest in the relationship between populism and foreign policy, we know little about how populists in power engage with Europeanized foreign policy institutions. Bridging between research on populism and foreign policy (de‐)Europeanization, this article develops a theoretical framework for examining the impact of PRR parties in government on core features of national foreign policy institutions. First, it identifies three dimensions – organizational priorities, the allocation of authority, and organizational culture – and related indicators for the assessment of foreign policy de‐Europeanization. Second, it argues that the impact of PRR parties in government on national foreign policy institutions depends on two main factors: their ‘foreign policy preferences’ and their ‘action capacity’. Whilst the article demonstrates substantial de‐Europeanization in Hungary's foreign policy institutions under successive Orbán governments, it also shows that the possession of a strong action capacity alone is not enough for institutional changes to take place.

Foreign Relations between Hungary and Latin America in the Early Years of the Cold War (1947–1959)

Abstract This article examines Hungarian foreign relations toward Latin America in the period between the end of World War ii and the victory of the Cuban Revolution and characterizes the problems raised by the general guidelines of Hungarian foreign policy toward the region. It seeks to answer the following questions: What political influences triggered Hungary’s turn toward Latin America? Is it possible to distinguish subperiods with independent characteristics within the analyzed period, and if so, what were the incentives of the subperiods? The article also analyzes the extent to which the fluctuations in Soviet–Latin American relations influenced the development of Hungarian trade and diplomatic relations, and how it reshaped Hungarian interest in the region.

Relations with the Global South, solidarity and pragmatism in Hungarian foreign policy since the 1960s – a focus on Africa

Relations with the Global South, solidarity and pragmatism in Hungarian foreign policy since the 1960s – a focus on Africa

Hungary in Yugoslav Foreign Policy 1918–1941

This paper will analyze the role of Hungary in the Foreign Policy of the first Yugoslav state. The main focus in on political bilateral relations, which are analyzed from the perspective of the state interests of the two countries which were on opposite sides during the First World War. We shall address the issues of how statesmen and military circles in Belgrade viewed the Hungarian foreign and domestic policy (particularly the question of the Habsburg restoration and its repercussion on the integrity of Yugoslavia, and irredentism and the role of minority in this aspect), and what concepts they pursued towards Budapest. An Important part of this analysis will be the role of economic contacts and projects in surmounting the political obstacles and crises. Bilateral political relations are analyzed through multilateral components, i. e. relations with the Great Powers, Yugoslavia ’s allies from the Little Entente (Czechoslovakia and Romania) and activities before the League of Nations.

The illusion of autonomy and new others: role conflict and Hungarian foreign policy after 2010

The illusion of autonomy and new others: role conflict and Hungarian foreign policy after 2010

The Europeanization of Hungarian foreign policy and the Hungarization of European foreign policy, 2010-18

ABSTRACT Fifteen years after joining the European Union there is a growing consensus that Hungary is in a process of de-Europeanization. This article aims to evaluate this assessment by looking at the foreign policy of Hungary under the second and third Orbán government (2010–18). Were there signs for de-Europeanization in the realm of foreign policy, and if yes, which? And secondly: what has been the degree of the Europeanization of Hungarian foreign policy between 2010–18 and which factors promoted or hindered it? To answer these questions, we look at both the implementation (decisions, initiatives, voting behaviour) and the rhetoric level of Hungarian foreign policy, in the latter case building on a sample of 103 speeches of foreign-policy decision-makers. By introducing the notion of ‘inevitable Europeanization’ the paper also aims to contribute to the conceptualization of the sub-field. Overall, we find that while Europeanized only to a low degree, Hungarian foreign policy was not in a process of de-Europeanization in the analysed period. Instead, the Orbán governments aimed to ‘Hungarize’ European foreign policy, i.e. to transform it in order to make it more compatible with its own preferences.

László Teleki, the diplomat of the Hungarian war of independence

This paper gives an overview of the political career of László Teleki, the leading diplo­mat of the Hungarian war of independence. Based on the topics discussed in this volume, his efforts as a writer of literature will also be mentioned here, though his theatrical pieces met just modest popular acclaim. Teleki joined politics, and became a well-known and successful politician in support of reformists. Later, before the war with Austria, he was appointed to act as the ambassador of the independent Hungarian government to Paris. He had a key role in shaping Hungarian foreign policy, wanted to secure the inde­pendence of the country both during the war of independence and in emigration. This paper focuses on this latter period, when his correspondence clearly reflected his politi­cal commitment and approach, as well as changes in his personal relations.

Razvoj i glavne smernice spoljne politike Mađarske od 1990. godine

This paper explores the three key priorities of Hungarian foreign policy after 1990: Euro-Atlantic integration, regional relations and relations with Hungarians living outside the borders of what is today Hungary. Also presented is a brief overview of recent events in Hungarian-Serbian relations. The paper describes the effects achieved, their political rationale and gives an assessment of the results achieved. The study concludes that Hungary was quickly and successfully integrated within the Euro-Atlantic alliance (NATO, EU), in the process developing new mechanisms for helping Hungarians living in other countries, which was achieved through improved cooperation with its neighbors. There are still areas where relations might be improved and cooperation and historical reconciliation with Serbia can be viewed as an exceptional example of this.

NATO békeműveletek a Balkánon

Since the change of regime, the Balkans has been important in the Hungarian foreign, security and defense policy. In the first decade, Hungary participated in all land-based NATO peacekeeping in the region. Although since then, with more than 900 people, Hungary has involved in peacekeeping in 15 countries and three continents, this region still has an important priority for our country. The importance of NATO operations in the Western Balkans presents the entire peace operational spectrum of the Alliance from 1992 to the present. The intermittent nature of NATO peacekeeping (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and Macedonia) is characterized by the current KFOR operation. Although the analysis focuses on transatlantic crisis management, it evaluates the outcome of the region's EuroAtlantic development. The development of the Western Balkans depends on both international alliances: while NATO is responsible for providing military security, the EU provides the developing Balkan countries with long term vision. The study ends with the presentation of the Hungarian results of Balkan peacekeeping.

Hungarian foreign policy after 2010 – selected problems

The Hungarian parliamentary elections of April 2010 and 2014 were widely commented both in Hungary and abroad. In 2010 Fidesz led by Viktor Orbán, won the elections in a spectacular way winning together with the coalition partner Christian Democratic People’s Party (KDNP) 67.88% of votes and 262 mandates in a 386 people parliament. Thus the new government won constitutional majority as well as the ability to carry out serious reforms in both the internal and foreign policies. The purpose of this article is to present the new directions in Hungarian foreign policy after 2010. Among the most important ones are strengthening of the relations with Russia as well as with other Asian countries as part of the „Eastern Opening” program. Another direction is to intensify the cooperation with the Visegrad Group members. The article also describes Budapest’s relations with the European Union.