Humerus Length Research Articles

Investigating the Effects of Vaping and Nicotine’s Block of Kir2.1 on Humerus and Digital Development in Embryonic Mice

Kir2.1 is an ion channel that is important for skeletal development. Nicotine, a common ingredient in electronic cigarettes, blocks Kir2.1. However, little research has been done to investigate how vaping nicotine during pregnancy affects embryonic development. We examined how vaping nicotine during pregnancy would affect embryonic skeletal development in mice. Mice pregnant with embryos of three genotypes—wild‐type, Kir2.1+/KO, or Kir2.1KO/KO—received either no vaping treatment, a 2.4% freebase nicotine vaping treatment, or a 3.6% nicotine salt vaping treatment throughout pregnancy. The embryos were dissected at E18.5, and their skeletons were extracted and stained for imaging. The lengths of the humerus bones and number of digital bones were calculated to quantify differences in bone development between groups. We found significant differences in humerus length between the wild‐type no vape and wild‐type 2.4% freebase nicotine groups, as well as the Kir2.1+/KO no vape and Kir2.1+/KO 2.4% freebase nicotine groups. However, no significant differences were found between wild‐type no vape and wild‐type 3.6% nicotine salt groups, as well as Kir2.1+/KO no vape and Kir2.1+/KO 3.6% nicotine salt groups. We suspect that nicotine salts are metabolized faster than freebase nicotine and thus inhibit Kir2.1’s function for a shorter amount of time, but further research needs to be conducted to test this hypothesis. We conclude that fetal exposure to vaped free base nicotine impacts the development of long bones and reduces long bone length.

THE ANTHROPOMETRY RELATIONSHIP LONG BONE TO HEIGHT OF BATAK TOBA TRIBE STUDENT IN BEKASI CITY

Forensic anthropology is the application of a specific branch of biological anthropology based on human bones and anatomy. Anthropometry is a method of measuring body parts. Height measurement is a forensic anthropological parameter that helps build a person's biological profile. Height can be determined by the size of the long bones including the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and fibula. This research on height was carried out on Batak Toba students. This study aims to determine the anthropometric relationship of long bone length to the height of Batak Toba students in the city of Bekasi. This research is an analytic observational study with a cross sectional approach. This research was conducted in the city of Bekasi with the research subjects totaling 60 students consisting of 30 men and 30 women with an age range of 18-22 years from the Toba Batak tribe who did not have bone disorders. Samples were taken by purposive sampling technique. Data analysis was performed by Pearson Correlation (r) test. The parameters analyzed in this study were length of humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, height, sitting height, weight, and body mass index. The results of the Pearson Correlation test analysis (r) showed that there is a significant relationship between the length of the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula and sitting height with a strong to perfect correlation, while the relationship between body mass index and height there is no significant difference and there is no correlation to Batak Toba students in the city of Bekasi.
 Keywords: height, long bones, anthropometry, Batak Toba

A morphometric study on variations of nutrient foramen of humerus with its clinical implication

Nutrient foramen is an opening in the shaft of the humerus, which is the point of entry of nutrient artery that supplies the medullary cavity. It plays an important role in healing of fracture. To determine number, location with respect to the surfaces and the zones, direction of entry, the size and distance of nutrient foramen from distal ends and from the midpoint of humerus, the length of humerus.86 dried bones were taken, measurements of the bone were taken by using digital sliding caliper except the total length of humerus which was measured by using an osteometric board. In this analytical study the data was noted and the statistical analysis was done by using the mean range and standard deviation.The humeri had one foramen in most specimen which were mainly noted on the anteromedial surface and medial border. The mean diameter was 0.814±0.213. The foraminal index had a mean value of 56.835±7.802%. The Landmark index had a mean value of 56.299±7.750%.Our study provides details about the nutrient foramina that will benefit clinicians in surgical procedures, Orthopedic procedures like bone grafting and in plastic and reconstructive surgery.

Effects of nitrite exposure on metamorphosis and skeletal development of Bufo gargarizans.

Nitrite, as a part of nitrogen cycle, is one of the most common toxic compounds in aquatic ecosystems. Since skeletal development is an essential process during amphibian metamorphosis, exposure of larval amphibians to nitrite might disrupt skeletal development. To evaluate whether nitrite affects skeletal development of amphibian larvae, Bufo gargarizans larvae at Gs26 were exposed to 10, 100, 500 and 1000μg/L nitrite-nitrogen (NO2-N) in the present study. The metamorphosis rate, body weight, body length, forelimb length and hindlimb length of B. gargarizans exposed to NO2-N were decreased. The microscopic structures of thyroid gland were altered under NO2-N exposure at Gs42. The skeletal lengths of the humerus, femur and fibulare of tadpole at Gs42 were significantly reduced under 100, 500 and 1000μg/L NO2-N treatment groups, and the lengths of humerus, tibia-fibula and tibiale of tadpole at Gs46 were significantly reduced under 1000μg/L NO2-N treatment groups. In addition, the expression levels of thyroid hormone (TH) and endochondral ossification-related genes of tadpoles at Gs42 and Gs46 were tested by qRT-PCR. Overall, NO2-N exposure could affect the expressions of these genes and then may influence the activity and function of thyroid gland, further disturbing the amphibian metamorphosis and skeletal development of amphibian larvae.

Polymorphisms of Palu Sheep IGF-1 Gene and Their Relationship with Skeletal Growth

This study aims to examine the polymorphisms of the IGF-1 gene associated with body weight and size. A total of 60 sheep from different farm locations in Palu City (Villages of Taipa, Poboya, Kawatuna, and Petobo), Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, were used. The variables observed were adult body weight and measurements, such as shoulder height, body length, humerus length, radius-ulna length, metacarpus length, hip height, femur length, tibial length, and metatarsus length as phenotypic characteristics. IGF-1 gene polymorphisms were analyzed using the Polymerase Chain Reaction-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) with Bsp143ǀǀ as a restriction enzyme. These gene polymorphisms were calculated using the allele and genotype frequency approach, as well as the Polymorphic Informative Content (PIC). Genotype associations with body weight and bone size were analyzed using the General Linear Model analysis method. The PCR-RFLP analysis results showed the presence of polymorphisms with the frequency and genotypes of GG (21.7%), GC (68.3%), and CC (10%). Furthermore, the frequencies of G (55.8%) and C (44.2%) genes with a 49.32% polymorphism rate (PIC) were not in the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (p<0.05). In conclusion, the IGF-1 gene polymorphism was detected in Palu sheep with an insignificant effect on body weight and bone size.

Clinical significance of soft markers in second trimester ultrasonography for pregnant Korean women: a multicenter study and literature review.

ObjectiveTo evaluate the clinical significance of soft markers for aneuploidy screening in Korean women.MethodsWe retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 5,428 singleton pregnant women who underwent sonography during the second trimester at seven institutions in South Korea. We evaluated the prevalence of the following soft markers: intracardiac echogenic focus, choroid plexus cysts, pyelectasis, echogenic bowel, and mild ventriculomegaly. We developed best-fitted regression equations for the fetal femur and humerus length using our data and defined a short femur and humerus as both long bones below the fifth centile. The results of genetic testing and postnatal outcomes were investigated in patients who had been diagnosed with aforementioned soft markers.ResultsThe median maternal age of our study population was 33 years, and the median gestational age at the time of ultrasonographic examination was 21 weeks. We detected soft markers in 10.0% (n=540) of fetuses: 9.3% (n=504) were isolated cases and 0.7% (n=36) of cases had two or more markers. We identified only two aneuploides (trisomy 18, 46,XX,t[8;10][q22.1;p13]), of which one was clinically significant. We presented the neonatal outcomes of the fetuses with the respective soft markers. Preterm delivery, low birth weight, and small-for-gestational-age (SGA) were significantly more common in women with a shortened fetal femur (P<0.001, all). However, the presence of a shortened fetal humerus was not associated with those outcomes excluding SGA.ConclusionSoft markers in second-trimester ultrasonography have limited use in screening for fetal aneuploidy in Korean women. However, these markers can be used as a screening tool for adverse outcomes other than chromosomal abnormality.

Reconstructions of Length of Humerus from it’s Fragments - A Preliminary Study in Eastern Indian Population

In a demographically diverse, vast and densely populated country like India, the establishment of identity of a deceased assumes great medico-legal importance. It also poses a true challenge to the forensic scientist working in an environment where decomposition and taphonomic process are rapid. Structurally bones resist common degradation and putrefactive changes and remain longer as material for evidential value. Human skeletal remains are found under suspicious circumstances and doctors examining them need to give an opinion in the court of law. One of the important data for identification is the stature. Henceforth, a technique is needed for reconstruction of total length of long bones from their fragments. The current investigation was designed to estimate the total length of humerus using its fragmentary length in a population specific study to employ them in stature formulae for population specific cases and finally to estimate the stature of the individual. After getting institutional ethical committee clearance, the study over 79 humeri revealed linear equation where total length of humerus was used as dependent variable and the different fragmentary length being the independent variables.

A Morphometric Study of Humerus to Determine Sexual Dimorphism in Indian Population

Introduction: Recognising the gender from the skeleton or decomposed body is a difficult task. Morphometry of long bones is highly applicable in such cases. The morphological features of humerus show varying degrees of sexual dimorphism in various populations. Aim: The study is focused on the morphometric analysis of humerus to evaluate the most reliable parameter for sexual dimorphism in Indian subcontinent. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was carried out from November 2016 to January 2020 on 82 dry completely ossified adult humeri of known sex (51 male and 31 female). The parameters included in this study were- Maximum Length of humerus (ML), Vertical Diameter of Head (VDH), Epicondylar Breadth (ECB), Maximum Mid-Shaft Diameter (Max. MSD) and Minimum Mid-Shaft Diameter (Min. MSD). The parameters were measured by electronic digital caliper and osteometric board. Descriptive and inferential statistical analysis was carried out to compute the demarking point and Discriminant Score (DS). Discriminant function analysis was performed using Wilk’s lambda to determine that which variable provided the best discrimination between sexes. Results: It was found that a higher demarking point indicates a male while the lower value indicates a female. In discriminant function analysis, the sectioning point greater than -0.42 was a male and less than -0.42 was a female. Wilk’s lambda was least for VDH (0.349) followed by ECB (0.467) and ML (0.486), whereas Max. and Min. MSD (0.771, 0.700) showed greater values. Conclusion: The VDH is the most reliable parameter in humerus for determination of sex followed by ECB and ML. Max. and Min. MSD have lesser contributions for sex determination. A combination of parameters is better than using a single parameter and this knowledge will be very helpful to forensic anthropologists.

Correlation of Long Bone Length and Number of Nutrient Foramina – Importance in Everyday Clinical Practice

Aims: Nutrient artery is the principal source of nutrition to the long bones. The topography of nutrient foramina on long bones is well known, but it has not yet been established whether the number of nutritive foramina (NF) is related to total bone length. The objective of the present study was to study the correlation of total number of nutrient foramina and long bone length of upper and lower limb to provide detailed data on such features.&#x0D; Study Design: A cross-sectional, descriptive study&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Department of anatomy, Medical Faculty University of Sarajevo. Study duration was 3 months.&#x0D; Methodology: In the present study, 300 adult human long bones of the upper (50 humeri, 50 radii, 50 ulnae) and lower (50 femora, 50 tibiae, 50 fibulae) limbs were investigated to determine the number of their nutrient foramina. The nutrient foramina were identified analysed macroscopically and total number of nutrient foramina for each bone was recorded. Total length of each bone within a group was recorded. Statistical analysis was performed to determine correlation between total bone length and number of nutrient foramina, by using SPSS version 17.0 for Windows.&#x0D; Results: A statistically significant negative correlations between the left humerus length and the number of NF was found. A positive correlations between the length of the right radius and the number of NF, the left ulna length and the number of NF, the right ulna length and the number of NF were found. A negative correlations between the length of the left radius and the number of NF and between right humerus length and number of NF were found. A positive correlation between the length of the right and left femur and the number of NF were found. A negative correlation between the length of left tibia and the number of NF was found, as well as negative correlation between the length of right and left fibula and number of NF.&#x0D; Conclusion: Total bone length is not related to the number of nutrient foramina. The number of nutrient foramina does not depend on the total length of the bone, which is important when assessing the success of grafts for transplantation on long bones in taller people.

Prenatal Diagnosis of a Lethal Skeletal Dysplasia.

Prenatal Diagnosis of a Lethal Skeletal Dysplasia.

Evaluation of Convolutional Neural Network Architecture for Feasibility Analysis on Fetal Abdomen and Brain Images

This research aims to evaluate the possibilities of fetus ultrasound image classification using machine learning algorithms as normal or abnormal. Most of the earlier research works have produced a high percentage of false-negative classification results—recent research work aimed to reduce the rate of false-negative diagnoses. Also, the number of sonologists for analyzing prenatal ultrasound worldwide is very less and solved by developing an efficient algorithm, which reduces the percentage of false negatives in the diagnosis output. Several earlier research works focused on analyzing fetal abdominal image or fetal head images, making the medical industry use two different diagnostic modules separately. This work aims to design and implement a convolution frame-work named as two Convolution Neural Network (tCNN) model for diagnosing any fetal images. The proposed tCNN model diagnoses the fetal abdominal and fetal brain images and classify them as normal or abnormal. CNN1of tCNN performs segmentation and classification based on the acceptance of abdomen circumference and stomach bubble, umbilical vein, and amniotic fluid measurements. CNN2shows based on head circumference and head and abdominal circumference, femur, crown-rump, and humerus lengths measured.With clinical validation, an extensive experiment carried out and the results compared with the experts in terms of segmentation accuracy and the obstetric measurements. This paper provides a foundation for future multi-classification research works on diagnosing fetal intracranial abnormalities and differential diagnosis using machine learning algorithms.

B-mode ultrasound and ecobiometric parameters to assess embryonic and fetal development and estimate gestational age in goats

The aim of this study was to monitor maternal-fetal ecobiometric parameters during physiological pregnancy in goats using ultrasound to predict gestational age by establishing mathematical equations. Twenty-five Saanen goats were included in the study. Assessments were performed weekly from the 21st day of pregnancy until parturition. The abdominal, thoracic, biparietal, and eye socket diameters; distance from the neck to snout; crown-rump, humerus, radius-ulna, metacarpal, femur, tibia, metatarsal, and placentome lengths; kidney height and length; and heart area were measured. Heart rate was obtained using the pulsed Doppler mode. The variables were correlated with gestational age using Spearman's test, and the adjustment of these variables to simple and multiple regression models was done to determine the mathematical formulas for calculating the gestational age. The highest obtained coefficients of determination (R2) were for humerus length (96.2), heart area (95.6), and distance from the neck to the snout (95.3). Only the placentome length and fetal heart rate presented low determination coefficients (R2 = 54.3, R2 = 45.0). The results indicated significant correlations between measures of maternal-fetal structures and gestational age, and can be used as reference values for detection of abnormalities during fetal development.

The Mid-Diaphysis Is a Poor Predictor of Humeral Fracture Risk Indicating That Predisposing Factors Are Recent

The incidence of spontaneous humeral fractures in first-lactation dairy heifers in New Zealand has emphasised the need to understand the thoracic limb bone growth of dairy heifers. Previous research has indicated that a predisposing factor to spontaneous humeral fracture is nutrition. In addition, it has been hypothesised that liver copper concentration affects bone strength and may be a potential factor associated with humeral fracture risk. The aim of this study was to compare bone morphology in the mid-diaphysis of the metacarpus and humerus of heifers affected and unaffected by spontaneous humeral fractures, and determine the effect of copper status at death on bone morphology. The metacarpus and humerus were collected from heifers affected and unaffected by humeral fractures, and scanned using peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT). The mid-diaphysis of the humerus of the affected group had reduced cortical bone mineral density and a trend for reduced cortical content and total bone content, which contributed to a reduced stress–strain index. The trend for reduced bone length in affected humeri provides additional support for the hypothesis of inhibited humeral growth. Heifers with low copper liver concentrations had reduced humerus lengths and reduced cortical bone mineral densities. These data support the hypothesis that the developmental window for humeral fracture is recent, and possibly associated with periods of inadequate nutrition.

Estimation of stature using Humerus length among adult population in South India

The humerus can be broken down into four segments. If the humerus is found in its entirety, then its length can be used to estimate stature. However, if only segments of the humerus are recovered then a combination of segments can be used to estimate stature.To estimate the stature using Humerus length among adult population in South India.A Cross sectional study was carried out using purposive sampling among Medical Students at CIMS, Chamarajanagar. Study duration was 6 months from July 2019 to December 2020. 100 Male and 100 Female Medicos were included in the study after taking informed consent. Differently abled adults were excluded from the study to reduce the error. Structured questionnaire was used to collect the data such as age, gender, height, arm length or Humerus length and distance between medical and lateral condyle.In the study among males there was significant positive correlation between Humerus length and height and distance between medial &amp; lateral epicondyle among females there was negative correlation between Humerus length and age Among Males equation for estimation of height using Humerus length = 103.1 + 1.903 x Arm length. Among Females equation for estimation of height using Humerus length = 108.34 + 1.608 x Arm length.As a result, these measurements may help to indicate the characteristic morphological features of humeral segments in south Indian population and also help the orthopedic surgeon to place the various implants in the reconstruction of humeral fractures.

Difference in Performance of EPI Pigs Fed Either Lipase-Predigested or Creon®-Supplemented Semielemental Diet.

Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) and fat predigestion are key in ensuring the optimal growth of patients with cystic fibrosis. Our study attempted to highlight differences between fat predigestion and conventional PERT on body composition of young pigs with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). EPI and healthy pigs were fed with high-fat diet for six weeks. During the last two weeks of the study, all pigs received additional nocturnal alimentation with Peptamen AF (PAF) and were divided into three groups: H—healthy pigs receiving PAF; P—EPI pigs receiving PAF+PERT; and L—EPI pigs receiving PAF predigested with an immobilized microbial lipase. Additional nocturnal alimentation increased the body weight gain of EPI pigs with better efficacy in P pigs. Humerus length and area in pigs in groups L and P were lower than that observed in pigs in group H (p value 0.005-0.088). However, bone mineral density and strength were significantly higher in P and L as compared to that of H pigs (p value 0.0026-0.0739). The gut structure was improved in P pigs. The levels of neurospecific proteins measured in the brain were mainly affected in P and less in L pigs as compared to H pigs. The beneficial effects of the nocturnal feeding with the semielemental diet in the prevention of EPI pigs' growth/development retardation are differently modified by PERT or fat predigestion in terms of growth, bone properties, neurospecific protein distribution, and gut structure.

Development of fetal growth charts in twins stratified by chorionicity and mode of conception: a retrospective cohort study in China.

Background:Twin pregnancies continue to increase worldwide; however, the current clinical prenatal evaluation for the intrauterine growth of twins still relies on the growth standards of singletons. We attempted to establish a set of fetal biometric references for Chinese twin pregnancies, stratified by chorionicity and conception mode as spontaneously conceived monochorionic diamniotic (SC-MCDA), spontaneously conceived dichorionic diamniotic (SC-DCDA), and assisted reproductive technology dichorionic diamniotic (ART-DCDA) twins.Methods:From 2016 to 2019, the ultrasonographic fetal biometric measurements were longitudinally collected in pregnant women, including fetal weight, biparietal diameter, head circumference, abdominal circumference, femur length, and humerus length. The linear mixed models were used to test the difference of growth patterns between groups, and the growth curve of each biometric parameter was modeled by a generalized additive model for location scale and shape.Results:A total of 929 twin pregnant women and 2019 singleton pregnant women, met the inclusion criteria. Among twin pregnancies, 148 were SC-MCDA, 215 were SC-DCDA, and 566 were ART-DCDA twins. Overall, SC-DCDA twins grew faster than SC-MCDA twins, while slower than ART-DCDA twins (all P < 0.05), and all of the three groups showed significant differences comparing with singletons, especially during the third trimester. Hence, the customized fetal growth charts of each fetal biometric parameter were, respectively, constructed for SC-MCDA, SC-DCDA, and ART-DCDA twins.Conclusions:The fetal biometric trajectories demonstrated characteristic patterns according to chorionicity and conception mode. To fill the gap, we modeled fetal biometric parameters for Chinese SC-MCDA, SC-DCDA, and ART-DCDA twin pregnancies, hoping to provide a reference for the further establishment of fetal growth reference values for Chinese twin fetuses.

Predicting Gestational Age of Fetus with the Reference of Humerus and Foot Length by Ultrasonography

Objective: The objective of the study is to predict the gestational age of fetus with the reference of humerus and foot length by ultrasonography. Methodology: A cross sectional analytical study was perform in which 131 pregnant women with a singleton fetus were taken to get the required results. All data of the ultrasonographical reports has been collected from The Department of Radiology, Sheikh Zaid Hospital, Lahore. All pregnant women, from the second trimester to full term, are examined by ultrasound measurement of the full HL and FFL were taken by using a curve array transducer. Results: 36 women (27.5%) out of 131 had gestational age by LMP was 17-20 weeks and only 2 women (1.5%) having gestational age by LMP of 37-40 weeks while out of 37 women (28.2%) out of 131 had gestational age by foot length was 17-20 weeks and 8 women(6.1%) having gestational age by foot length of 25-28 weeks. 41 women (31.3%) out of 131 had gestational age by humerus length was17-20 weeks and 3 women (2.3%) having gestational age by foot length of 37-40 weeks.GA was almost similar from these different parameters i.e. LMP, Foot Length and Humerus Length. Conclusion: The fetal foot length and humerus length developed with gestational age in a healthily developing fetus. During the late second and third trimesters of pregnancy, the length of a fetus's foot and humerus length could be considered as an exploratory approach to determine the gestation of the fetus. When other parameters failed to reliably estimate gestational age, the length of the fetal foot and humerus length proved effective. Keywords: Gestational age, Humerus Length, Foot length DOI: 10.7176/JHMN/91-05 Publication date: July 31 st 2021

Morphology and morphometric analysis of bones of the forelimb of giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)

We studied the bones of forelimb of male giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) to record the gross anatomical and morphometrical features of the scapula, humerus, radius and ulna. We observed some unique anatomical features that will be helpful for radiographic interpretation and forensic investigations. For this purpose all the bones of thoracic limb were collected timely from the burial ground, identified by their morphological features and finally measured after processing with chemicals. The scapula was a triangular flat bone and the lateral surface of scapula was unequally divided into supraspinous (fossa supraspinata) and infraspinous fossa (fossa infraspinata) by a welldeveloped spine (spina scapulae). The humerus was a major and massive bone in the appendicular skeleton to bear the total body weight. The average length of humerus was 56.17 cm that run from the shoulder to the elbow. It possessed a cylindrical diaphysis which was somewhat compressed laterally and two enlarged epiphysis namely-proximal epiphysis and distal epiphysis. The humeral head (coput humeri) was long and strongly curved cranio-caudally; while the distal end had condyles (condylus) and epicondyles (epicondylud laterialis). The radius and ulna were twin bones where radius was articulated craniolateral to the ulna proximally and craniomedial to the ulna distally. However, the ulna was the longest bone in the forelimb of giraffe. These bones were entirely fused in giraffe except two places namely- proximal and distal interosseous spaces

The first pectoral and forelimb material assigned to the lagerpetid Lagerpeton chanarensis (Archosauria: Dinosauromorpha) from the upper portion of the Chañares Formation, Late Triassic

The posture of the earliest dinosaurs is thought to be bipedal whereas their pseudosuchian relatives and stem archosaurs are thought to be typically quadrupedal. Therefore, the transition from quadrupedality to bipedality lies somewhere between the origin of Avemetatarsalia (bird-line archosaurs) and Dinosauria. However, studying this transition is hampered by the lack of forelimb fossils from many of the close relatives of dinosaurs and it is not clear if the morphology of the few dinosauromorphs that have forelimb material is unique or represents the plesiomorphic condition. New forelimb fossils of dinosaur relatives and careful assessments of their osteology are sorely needed to help address this knowledge gap. Here we present the first pectoral (left scapulocoracoid) and forelimb (right humerus) bones of an avemetatarsalian from the upper portion of the Chañares Formation of Argentina. We hypothesize that the bones pertain to the important early ornithodiran Lagerpeton chanarensis, but the scapulocoracoid and humerus does not precisely match any non-dinosaurian avemetatarsalian. The bones were prepared from a concretion that only consisted of Lagerpeton chanarensis and the cynodont Massetognathus pascuali. We identify the bones as belonging to Lagerpeton chanarensis because the distal end of the femur possesses an inflated crista tibiofibularis – a lagerpetid character state – and the newly recognized pectoral and forelimb bones are generally similar to those of the lagerpetid Dromomeron romeri and Ixalerpeton polesinensis, with tall and constricted anteroposteriorly narrow scapular blades and a humerus with a highly asymmetrical proximal end. The length of humerus and the proportions of the proximal and distal end in Lagerpeton chanarensis are also more similar to that of Dromomeron romeri. Overall, the scapulocoracoids and humeri of lagerpetids are similar in proportion across taxa, but comparing the length of the forelimbs to the hindlimbs is hampered by the lack of articulated or unambiguously associated individuals of any member of the group. Currently, it is still not clear if the anatomy of the pectoral girdle and forelimb of lagerpetids, and thus posture, is unique for lagerpetids or represents the ancestral condition for ornithodirans.

Collum Chirurgicum'un Morfometrik Değerlendirilmesi

Purpose: Collum chirurgicum is the most frequently fractured part on the proximal humerus. While, collum fractures have been a subject to vast numbers of researches, its structural dispositions depending on the variants of sex and directional morphometry requires further investigation. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate sex and side differences by using morphometric measurements of humerus and collum chirurgicum. Methods: In order to achieve the above-mentioned objective, measurements were performed on dry humerus specimens from 60 male and 60 female origins. The circumference of collum chirurgicum (CC) and humerus length (HL) were measured. After the completion of these measurements the area (CA) of collum chirurgicum was calculated and the data obtained was utilized to create two separate indexes. Results: The circumference of collum chirurgicum differed significantly between the sexes, but not between the right-left sides. Although there was a significant difference between male and female HL on the right side, there was no significant difference on the left side. The highest mean value of the CC in females was lower than the minimum value obtained in males. The mean value of the CA in males was higher than the maximum value obtained in females. There was a significant difference between sexes for both indexes. Conclusion: We think that collum chirurgicum is an important region in sex determination. Therefore, morphometric data of this area can shed light on forensic research and can give an idea about the approach to fracture treatment and help in solving the clinical problems that may occur.