Benefits For Human Well-being Research Articles

Expert-Based Approach on Mapping Ecosystem Services Potential Supply Incircling a Protected Areas by Integrating Matrix Model Assessment

The concept of ecosystem services was introduced into global policy to consolidate both conservation and development to interconnect the discourse between biodiversity and sustainable development for the benefit of human well-being; this encourages conservation and land use planners to achieve both ecological and social goals. Mapping the potential supply of ecosystem services is necessary for continuous monitoring of such services to ensure the sustainable management of natural resources to support decision-making. Therefore, this study presents a multifaceted methodological framework for mapping ecosystem services potential supply surrounding a protected area. We integrate a non-monetary ‘Matrix Model’ assessment with an expert-driven approach to assess the potential supply from a holistic perspective. Experts and stakeholders dealt with Likert scales to weigh multiple land cover supply of ecosystem services. Our study shows that using an integrated approach to map ecosystem services not only minimizes uncertainties but is also important for the evaluation of ecosystem services. The integration process can also be an interactive approach between scientists and stakeholders to improve mutual understanding regarding resource management. The selected services and land cover data can be an effective medium to visually exhibit forest function and the services of a protected area; these can work as scheming tools that can contribute to an effective policy measurement for the sustainable conservation of protected areas.

Ozone depletion, ultraviolet radiation, climate change and prospects for a sustainable future

Changes in stratospheric ozone and climate over the past 40-plus years have altered the solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation conditions at the Earth’s surface. Ozone depletion has also contributed to climate change across the Southern Hemisphere. These changes are interacting in complex ways to affect human health, food and water security, and ecosystem services. Many adverse effects of high UV exposure have been avoided thanks to the Montreal Protocol with its Amendments and Adjustments, which have effectively controlled the production and use of ozone-depleting substances. This international treaty has also played an important role in mitigating climate change. Climate change is modifying UV exposure and affecting how people and ecosystems respond to UV; these effects will become more pronounced in the future. The interactions between stratospheric ozone, climate and UV radiation will therefore shift over time; however, the Montreal Protocol will continue to have far-reaching benefits for human well-being and environmental sustainability.

Human wellbeing outcomes of involvement in industrial crop production: Evidence from sugarcane, oil palm and jatropha sites in Ghana.

An extensive body of theoretical work has advocated the use of multiple human wellbeing indicators to assess the outcomes of agricultural investments in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA). However, few studies have actually achieved it. This study investigates the human wellbeing outcomes of involvement in industrial crop production in Ghana by comparing the levels of different objective and subjective wellbeing measures for groups involved in industrial crop production as plantation workers and smallholders, and groups not involved (i.e. control groups). We use household income, adult consumption and the multidimensional poverty index (MPI) as indicators of objective wellbeing. We measure subjective wellbeing through self-reported levels of satisfaction with life, worthwhileness, happiness and anxiousness. Propensity Score Matching (PSM) analysis is used to assess whether involvement in industrial crop production increases household income and consumption. Overall, for most indicators of objective wellbeing industrial crop outgrowers, smallholders and independent smallholders are better off compared to other groups in their respective sites (in terms of mean scores), but involvement does not necessarily brings human wellbeing benefits (PSM analysis). On the other hand plantation workers are either worse off or have similar level of objective human wellbeing with control groups in their respective sites (in terms of mean scores), but involvement sometimes brings human wellbeing benefits (PSM analysis). However, workers tend to benefit from access to plantation infrastructure, which has a positive effect to their multi-dimensional poverty. In most cases the objective wellbeing measures do not correlate well with self-reported levels of subjective wellbeing. It is important to combine such indicators when evaluating the human wellbeing outcomes of agricultural investments in order to obtain a more comprehensive outlook of whether industrial crop production can become a valuable rural development strategy in SSA.

Идентификация и оценка экосистемных услуг: международный контекст

Over the past 10 years the problems related to ecosystem services have been reflected not only in scientific developments but also in official conceptual documents of the leading international organizations, including the United Nations (UN), the World Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European Community (EC). Ecosystem services and payments for these services have become important in the economic and political parts of these documents. This is related in many ways to the awareness of the rapid degradation of nature, which also damages human well-being and the economy. This article analyzes the existing definitions and classifications of ecosystem services by international organizations and in the scientific literature. It concludes that the term “ecosystem services” remains controversial and that there are a number of approaches to its definition. Common in these approaches is an attempt to link eco-services with benefits for human well-being. The most recognized approach is the methodology of the UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, which defines ecosystem services as those benefits that people receive from ecosystems. Particular attention in this article is paid to identifying the economic value of ecosystems and their services, which is the most difficult and urgent task for economic science. Due to the latent nature of many benefits from ecoservices and their diffusion among consumers/beneficiaries, they largely serve as public goods and are seen as free. Thus their importance is greatly underestimated, which leads to their degradation. Without a solution to this problem, the transition to a new economy for humanity is impossible. It is necessary to level out the risks of over-exploitation and depletion of ecosystem services, which requires that the environmental factor is adequately taken into account when making economic decisions.In Russia the economics of ecosystem services has been poorly developed both in economic research and in legal and policy documents. An important step in resolving this problem should be the implementation of the Russian president’s Orders to the Government of the Russian Federation (January 2017), which envisage the development of an international environmental agenda for the formation of a system of compensation (payments) for ecosystem services with Russia as an environmental donor. Such a system needs to be formed within the country to support regions with large ecosystem capital.

Evaluation of the relationship between ornamental plants – based ecosystem services and human wellbeing: A case study from Lefke Region of North Cyprus

Ornamental plants and relevant horticulture practices provide essential environmental, economic, social, and aesthetic benefits for human wellbeing. However, the contribution of ornamental plants-based ecosystem services (ESs) to human wellbeing (HWB) has not yet been explored in detail. This study was carried out with the aim of contributing to this knowledge gap. Accordingly, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the relationship between ornamental plants based–ESs and HWB in a home garden context in Lefke Region of North Cyprus. The objectives of the study were (i) to identify the ornamental plant species cultivated in the home gardens, (ii) to evaluate the major ornamental plants-based ESs, (iii) to assess the contributions of the relevant ESs to the HWB, and (iv) to examine the interrelationship between the different categories of ESs and HWB. The conceptual framework of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and a social preference valuation approach were adopted to assess the ornamental plants-based ESs, their contributions to the components of HWB, and interrelations amongst them. A number of qualitative (e.g. semi-structured interviews) and quantitative (e.g. a questionnaire) research tools were employed to collect the relevant data. The quantitative data obtained from 170 residents were evaluated using a 0–5 Likert Scale. The field surveys revealed that the composition of ornamental plants in the home gardens consists of 233 plant species. Evaluation of the quantitative data showed that the average relative value of the ornamental plants-based ESs varies between the categories of habitat-based ESs (4,08 points) and regulating ESs (3,00 points). This finding indicates the significant role of ornamental plants for ‘habitat formation’ and ‘wildlife attraction’. The most tagged components were ‘habitats for pets’ and ‘aesthetic quality’. The ornamental plants-based ESs particularly contribute to the two components of HWB: ‘security’ (4,51 points) and ‘contact with nature’ (4,37 points). The relationship between the ESs and HWB was quantified on a 1–5 Likert scale. A high degree of correlation was found between the categories of ‘provisioning services’ and ‘basic material for a good life’ and also between the categories of ‘cultural services’ and ‘development of good social relations’ with a 4,96 points. The lowest degree of correlation was estimated to be between the categories of ‘regulating services’ and ‘development good social relations’ with a 1,01 points. The results of this study may contribute to a better understanding of the complex relationship between the ornamental plants-based ESs and HWB in Lefke Region and elsewhere.

Contribution of native forests to climate change mitigation – A common approach to carbon accounting that aligns results from environmental-economic accounting with rules for emissions reduction

Comprehensive carbon stock and flow accounts integrated with economic information, under an environmental-economic accounting framework, provide a common approach for an information system to improve policymaking for climate change mitigation, sustainable development and forest management. The information system includes environmental and economic data, linkages between land use activities, their co-benefits, inputs to the economy and benefits for human well-being. Forest management was used as an example of application of the accounting framework because it has the greatest climate change mitigation potential of all land use activities. A case study developing carbon accounts for a forest region in south-eastern Australia demonstrated the mitigation benefits of long-term carbon storage and sequestration in native forests. Using environmental-economic accounts helped identify policy and market instruments required to value ecosystem services of carbon storage and sequestration by applying a potential market price for carbon. We identified benefits of native forest protection as a carbon abatement activity, and compared this value to that of current forest management for timber harvesting that reduces carbon stocks. Both land uses provided similar economic contributions (approximately $12 million yr−1, using a minimal carbon price), but native forest protection has additional co-benefits of improving water yield, tourism, recreation and biodiversity conservation. The accounts determine values of land use activities in physical and monetary metrics, and link these to beneficiaries of ecosystem services, so that maximum benefits for public good are identified. Quantifying ecosystem services of carbon storage (protecting stocks) and sequestration (increasing flows) in a native forest region, by applying a potential market price, broadens the policy options for mitigation activities. Adopting a comprehensive accounting system, and changing some of the definitions and rules under the Paris Agreement and national emissions reduction policies and markets, would allow the mitigation benefit of protecting native forests to be realised.

I can hear the birds: using audio recordings to assess perceptions of amenity in urban riparian environments

The restorative qualities of nature (amenity values) have been explored for their benefits to human wellbeing. Yet methodology to assess restorative qualities is generally limited to visual stimuli in laboratory situations. Little is known about the influence of other sensory elements or specific environmental conditions on perceptions of amenity and finding data collection methods that encapsulate these complexities is challenging. This study used a novel methodological approach utilising in-situ voice recordings to explore the relationship between human perceptions of amenity and biodiversity levels of urban river corridors in Melbourne, Australia. The research methodology collected in-situ responses to natural stimuli. This enabled the influence of biodiversity levels on public perceptions of the amenity value of urban river corridors to be explored. To investigate this, participants were taken to two sites along a river, one with high biodiversity and one with low biodiversity. Participants walked alone for 30 min along the river corridor recording their experiences on portable voice recorders as they travelled. Utilising voice recordings enabled the collection of rich in-situ experiences of amenity and enhanced self-reporting written responses. This method also gave voice to the influence of other sensory elements along with the visual and allowed the researchers to better appreciate the immersed experiences of the participants. This method provides a means of progressing amenity and perception studies from laboratory settings to real experiences of amenity. It illuminates the links between human wellbeing benefits and contact with biodiversity and can facilitate greater synergy between land management and public perceptions.

The role of socio-economic factors in planning and managing urban ecosystem services

How green spaces in cities benefit urban residents depends critically on the interaction between biophysical and socio-economic factors. Urban ecosystem services are affected by both ecosystem characteristics and the social and economic attributes of city dwellers. Yet, there remains little synthesis of the interactions between ecosystem services, urban green spaces, and socio-economic factors. Articulating these linkages is key to their incorporation into ecosystem service planning and management in cities and to ensuring equitable outcomes for city inhabitants. We present a conceptual model of these linkages, describe three major interaction pathways, and explore how to operationalize the model. First, socio-economic factors shape the quantity and quality of green spaces and their ability to supply services by influencing management and planning decisions. Second, variation in socio-economic factors across a city alters people’s desires and needs and thus demands for different ecosystem services. Third, socio-economic factors alter the type and amount of benefit for human wellbeing that a service provides. Integrating these concepts into green space policy, planning, and management would be a considerable improvement on ‘standards-based’ urban green space planning. We highlight the implications of this for facilitating tailored planning solutions to improve ecosystem service benefits across the socio-economic spectrum in cities.

Gardener Well-Being along Social and Biophysical Landscape Gradients

Increasing human populations are challenging cities to grow sustainably while maintaining green spaces that deliver ecosystem services and well-being benefits. Community gardens are green spaces that provide food, community, and health benefits, but gardens often are non-permanent due to development and green space loss. Thus, investigating their significance and benefit across urban regions is critical for research and policy alike. This study investigated the role of community gardens in providing human well-being benefits across three counties in the California Central Coast—a region undergoing massive urban transformation in the last century. We measured how multiple aspects of self-reported gardener well-being varied in relation to the social opportunities of surrounding neighborhoods and the biophysical features of the landscapes in which the gardens were embedded. The results document improvements in gardener well-being through gardening across social and biophysical gradients. Gardeners are motivated by diverse reasons, varying from gardening in order to connect to nature, to gardening for improved food access, or to enhance time spent with family. Community gardens are therefore important for supporting many well-being benefits. Policies to maintain and protect gardens should prioritize neighborhoods with needs for connecting to nature and enhancing social interaction within the community.

Perceived barriers to and drivers of community participation in protected-area governance.

Protected areas (PAs) are a frequently used conservation strategy, yet their socioeconomic impacts on local communities remain contentious. A shift toward increased participation by local communities in PA governance seeks to deliver benefits for human well-being and biodiversity. Although participation is considered critical to the success of PAs, few researchers have investigated individuals' decisions to participate and what this means for how local people experience the costs and benefits of conservation. We explored who participates in PA governance associations and why; the perceived benefits and costs to participation; and how costs and benefits are distributed within and between communities. Methods included 3 focus groups, 37 interviews, and 217 questionnaire surveys conducted in 3 communities and other stakeholders (e.g., employees of a nongovernmental organization and government officials) in PA governance in Madagascar. Our study design was grounded in the theory of planned behavior (TPB), the most commonly applied behavior model in social psychology. Participation in PA governance was limited by miscommunication and lack of knowledge about who could get involved and how. Respondents perceived limited benefits and high costs and uneven distribution of these within and between communities. Men, poorer households, and people in remote villages reported the highest costs. Our findings illustrate challenges related to comanagement of PAs: understanding the heterogeneous nature of communities; ensuring all households are represented in governance participation; understanding differences in the meaning of forest protection; and targeting interventions to reach households most in need to avoid elite capture.

Charting the Future of Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment: A Special Issue

Charting the Future of Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment: A Special Issue

Implementing and managing urban forests: A much needed conservation strategy to increase ecosystem services and urban wellbeing

Megacities contain at least 10 million people whose wellbeing largely depends on ecosystem services provided by remote natural areas. What is, however, most often disregarded is that nature conservation in the city can also contribute to human wellbeing benefits. The most common mind set separates cities from the rest of nature, as if they were not special kinds of natural habitats. Instead, awareness that urban systems are also nature and do host biodiversity and ecosystem services opportunities, should push urban people towards increased urban forest conservation and implementation strategies. This research estimated existing and potential, tree cover, and its contribution to ecosystem services in 10 megacity metropolitan areas, across 5 different continents and biomes. We developed estimates for each megacity using local data to transform i-Tree Eco estimates of tree cover benefits to reductions in air pollution, stormwater, building energy, and carbon emissions for London, UK. The transformation used biophysical scaling equations based on local megacity tree cover, human population, air pollution, climate, energy use, and purchasing power parity. The megacity metropolitan areas ranged from 1173 to 18,720 sq km (median value 2530 sq km), with median tree cover 21%, and potential tree cover another 19% of the city. Megacities had a median tree cover density of 39m2/capita, much smaller than the global average value of 7800m2/capita, with density lower in desert and tropical biomes, and higher in temperate biomes. The present median benefit value from urban trees in all 10 megacities can be estimated as $482 million/yr due to reductions in CO, NO2, SO2, PM10, and PM2.5, $11 million/yr due to avoided stormwater processing by wastewater facilities, $0.5 million/yr due to building energy heating and cooling savings, and $8 million/yr due to CO2 sequestration. Planting more trees in potential tree cover areas could nearly double the benefits provided by the urban forest. In 2016 there were 40 megacities, totaling 722 million residents, nearly 10% of the human population, who would benefit from nature conservation plans where they work and live. Nature conservation strategies in megacities should work to sustain and grow the benefits of the urban forest, and improve accounting methods to include additional ecosystem services provided by the urban forest.

Divergence and conflicts in landscape planning across spatial scales in Slovakia: An opportunity for an ecosystem services-based approach?

ABSTRACTThis paper provides a detailed analysis of environment policy implementation in national, regional and local landscape planning in Slovakia. The policy and strategic documents are assessed from the perspective of the ecosystem services (ES) concept which integrates environmental and economic objectives of the landscape planning. This paper builds on three main empirical elements: (1) review of key national policies in respect to landscape planning, (2) review of key local and regional planning, strategic and assessment documents, (3) stakeholder interviews and focus groups. Our results indicate that spatial planning and assessment processes in Slovakia based on legislation and regulations for individual sectors are mainly contradictory in some cases, rather than encompassing integrated (landscape) planning procedures. The ES concept has not been considered in any planning tools across scales. These results were found to be similar with respective EU policies, in which the limited uptake of the ES concept was also observed. Finally, the paper presents recommendations which can enhance spatial planning processes in Slovakia; using an ES-inspired integrated framework for landscape assessment and decision-making. Such improvement of planning and decision-making procedures can be exploited in real-world solutions, and provide long-term benefits for human well-being while still retaining links to ecosystem functions and processes.EDITED BY Sandra Luque

Designing coastal conservation to deliver ecosystem and human well-being benefits.

Conservation scientists increasingly recognize that incorporating human values into conservation planning increases the chances for success by garnering broader project acceptance. However, methods for defining quantitative targets for the spatial representation of human well-being priorities are less developed. In this study we employ an approach for identifying regionally important human values and establishing specific spatial targets for their representation based on stakeholder outreach. Our primary objective was to develop a spatially-explicit conservation plan that identifies the most efficient locations for conservation actions to meet ecological goals while sustaining or enhancing human well-being values within the coastal and nearshore areas of the western Lake Erie basin (WLEB). We conducted an optimization analysis using 26 features representing ecological and human well-being priorities (13 of each), and included seven cost layers. The influence that including human well-being had on project results was tested by running five scenarios and setting targets for human well-being at different levels in each scenario. The most important areas for conservation to achieve multiple goals are clustered along the coast, reflecting a concentration of existing or potentially restorable coastal wetlands, coastal landbird stopover habitat and terrestrial biodiversity, as well as important recreational activities. Inland important areas tended to cluster around trails and high quality inland landbird stopover habitat. Most concentrated areas of importance also are centered on lands that are already conserved, reflecting the lower costs and higher benefits of enlarging these conserved areas rather than conserving isolated, dispersed areas. Including human well-being features in the analysis only influenced the solution at the highest target levels.

Effect of cinnamon essential oils addition in the sensory attributes of dark chocolate

Abstract. Dwijatmoko MI, Praseptiangga D, Muhammad DRA. 2016. Effect of cinnamon essential oils addition in the sensory attributes of dark chocolate. Nusantara Bioscience 8: 301-305. Chocolate is one of the most popular confectionery products in the world. The increasing demand for healthy foods has led to rapid growth in innovative healthy chocolate. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum burmanii) has been widely used as flavoring agent in the food product as well as has been proven to have benefit for human well-being. This study aims to investigate the effect of cinnamon essential oils added in dark chocolate on consumer acceptance. A hedonic test using untrained panelists was performed in this research. The result showed that the presence of the cinnamon essential oils changed significantly on the panelist acceptability to the chocolate.

Losing ground, losing sleep: Local economic conditions, economic vulnerability, and sleep

Medical research shows that healthy sleep has benefits for human wellbeing. We contribute to the emerging social-epidemiological literature on the social determinants of sleep by considering how living in an area with poor economic circumstances can result in sleep loss through financial worry, uncertainty and stress. We use multilevel regression models and nationally-representative data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey (n = 9181) and find that individuals who live in areas with high unemployment rates or experience individual-level economic vulnerability sleep less than comparable individuals in areas with low unemployment rates, or who do not experience financial hardships. The negative association between local economic conditions and sleep duration is substantially stronger amongst economically vulnerable individuals. This highlights the importance of considering multiple levels in the analysis of health inequalities, as status and location can intersect to produce and reproduce disadvantage systems.

A Rose by Any Other Name: Plant Identification Knowledge & Socio-Demographics.

Concern has been expressed over societal losses of plant species identification skills. These losses have potential implications for engagement with conservation issues, gaining human wellbeing benefits from biodiversity (such as those resulting from nature-based recreational activities), and early warning of the spread of problematic species. However, understanding of the prevailing level of species identification skills, and of its key drivers, remains poor. Here, we explore socio-demographic factors influencing plant identification knowledge and ability to classify plants as native or non-native, employing a novel method of using real physical plants, rather than photographs or illustrations. We conducted face-to-face surveys at three different sites chosen to capture respondents with a range of socio-demographic circumstances, in Cornwall, UK. We found that survey participants correctly identified c.60% of common plant species, were significantly worse at naming non-native than native plants, and that less than 20% of people recognised Japanese knotweed Fallopia japonica, which is a widespread high profile invasive non-native in the study region. Success at naming plants was higher if participants were female, a member of at least one environmental, conservation or gardening organisation, in an older age group (than the base category of 18–29 years), or a resident (rather than visitor) of the study area. Understanding patterns of variation in plant identification knowledge can inform the development of education and engagement strategies, for example, by targeting sectors of society where knowledge is lowest. Furthermore, greater understanding of general levels of identification of problematic invasive non-native plants can guide awareness and education campaigns to mitigate their impacts.

Synthesis of Household Yard Area Dynamics in the City of San Juan Using Multi-Scalar Social-Ecological Perspectives

Urban sustainability discourse promotes the increased use of green infrastructure (GI) because of its contribution of important ecosystem services to city dwellers. Under this vision, all urban green spaces, including those at the household scale, are valued for their potential contributions to a city’s social-ecological functioning and associated benefits for human well-being. Understanding how urban residential green spaces have evolved can help improve sustainable urban planning and design, but it requires examining urban processes occurring at multiple scales. The interaction between social structures and ecological structures within the subtropical city of San Juan, the capital and the largest city of Puerto Rico, has been an important focus of study of the San Juan ULTRA (Urban Long-Term Research Area) network, advancing understanding of the city’s vulnerabilities and potential adaptive capacity. Here we provide a synthesis of several social-ecological processes driving residential yard dynamics in the city of San Juan, Puerto Rico, through the evaluation of empirical findings related to yard management decisions, yard area, and yard services. We emphasize the role of factors occurring at the household scale. Results are discussed within the context of shrinking cities using an integrated, multi-scalar, social-ecological systems framework, and consider the implications of household green infrastructure for advancing urban sustainability theory.

Tracking cultural ecosystem services: water chasing the Colorado River restoration pulse flow

The release of environmental flows for ecological restoration is a challenge for water policymakers and managers as it involves complex trade-offs between productive and ecosystem uses of water. While it is crucial to demonstrate that such environmental flows produce the desired hydro-ecological results, allocation of environmental water is also influenced by perceived social values of this water. This research draws on the sub-field of socio-hydrology to track two-way feedbacks between humans and environmental flows and shows why and how social responses to river restoration can be monitored. Media coverage, posted comments and in-person interviews were used to track the responses of stakeholders who ‘chased’ the progress of the 2014 “pulse flow” down the Colorado River. These data framed in the cultural ecosystem systems typology revealed the temporal patterns and dynamics of dramatic shifts in socio-hydrologic processes and highlight the value of understanding the human wellbeing benefits and complex social values that are affected by freshwater restoration. This experimental and mixed evidence approach is useful for contexts where multiple stakeholders shape water resource management and we suggest it can be used by water decision-makers in their efforts to understand and appropriately respond to the social-ecological dynamics of a changing river system.

Evaluation of promising technologies for soil salinity amelioration in Timpaki (Crete): a participatory approach

Abstract. Soil salinity management can be complex, expensive, and time demanding, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Besides taking no action, possible management strategies include amelioration and adaptation measures. Here we apply the World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) framework for the systematic analysis and evaluation and selection of soil salinisation amelioration technologies in close collaboration with stakeholders. The participatory approach is applied in the RECARE (Preventing and Remediating degradation of soils in Europe through Land Care) project case study of Timpaki, a semi-arid region in south-central Crete (Greece) where the main land use is horticulture in greenhouses irrigated by groundwater. Excessive groundwater abstractions have resulted in a drop of the groundwater level in the coastal part of the aquifer, thus leading to seawater intrusion and in turn to soil salinisation. The documented technologies are evaluated for their impacts on ecosystem services, cost, and input requirements using a participatory approach and field evaluations. Results show that technologies which promote maintaining existing crop types while enhancing productivity and decreasing soil salinity are preferred by the stakeholders. The evaluation concludes that rainwater harvesting is the optimal solution for direct soil salinity mitigation, as it addresses a wider range of ecosystem and human well-being benefits. Nevertheless, this merit is offset by poor financial motivation making agronomic measures more attractive to users.