Human Tiger Research Articles

Hunted to extinction: Human–tiger interaction in Manipur, India

Hunted to extinction: Human–tiger interaction in Manipur, India

Dimensions of human–tiger conflict and solutions for coexistence in the forests of the Khata Corridor, Bardiya, Nepal

Abstract Khata Corridor forest, which serves as a border crossing for wildlife between Nepal and India, is one of the areas in Nepal with the highest incidence of human–wildlife conflict. In recent years both the tiger Panthera tigris tigris and human populations in this region have increased, leading to more frequent conflict. We aimed to determine whether increased conflict risk was primarily from tigers entering human settlements or whether there are additional drivers associated with human use of forested areas. We conducted the study in four settlements that varied in socio-economic status and distance from Bardiya National Park, through field visits and household surveys. Tiger records (sightings, pug marks and attacks) were most frequent far from Bardiya National Park, in settlements without benefits from tiger-based tourism and nearer the periphery of forest, and were rarely associated with the interior of settlements. Human visitation into forests was also highest in the most remote settlement. Our findings suggest that conflict risk is driven by the extent of human activity in forested areas, reflecting an unequal distribution of the conservation benefits of tourism amongst settlements. In the long-term, continued coexistence between people and tigers will depend on minimizing conflict risk across settlements through establishing an equitable distribution of conservation benefits. In the short term, we recommend raising public awareness of tiger behaviour to emphasize that tigers are highly unlikely to enter and occupy the interior of human settlements, mitigating negative perceptions of conflict risk.

Commentary to: An integrated historical study on human–tiger interactions in China

Commentary to: An integrated historical study on human–tiger interactions in China

Multi-stakeholder identification and prioritization of human–tiger conflict reduction measures in Chitwan National Park, Nepal

Abstract The identification and implementation of conflict reduction measures are necessary to reduce predator attacks on people and livestock and to minimize human encroachment into predator habitats. We identified potential human–tiger conflict reduction measures and prioritized these measures for Chitwan National Park, Nepal. We identified these measures through a literature review, key informant interviews and a local stakeholder workshop. We prioritized the identified measures using a questionnaire survey of victims of tiger attacks (farmers, forest users and fishers), beneficiaries of tiger conservation (tourist guides, Jeep and elephant safari operators, tour and hotel operators and business operators) and National Park managers. We identified 22 measures (12 preventative, five reactive and five mitigative) as having potential for reducing negative interactions between people and tigers. Amongst these, we identified compensation payments, tiger-proof fences and habitat and prey management as high-priority measures. Conflict reduction priorities also varied amongst stakeholder groups. The victims assigned the highest priority to the construction of tiger-proof fences, whereas beneficiaries identified the management of habitat and prey as their highest priority. Compensation payments were the first preference of National Park managers and were amongst the top two priorities of all stakeholder groups. We recommend the adoption of the identified stakeholder priorities for reducing human–tiger conflict around Chitwan National Park and encourage consideration of the variations in priorities between stakeholder groups during policy development and decision-making.

An integrated historical study on human–tiger interactions in China

AbstractTigers (Panthera tigris), as apex predators, play a crucial role in maintaining ecological functions within their ecosystems. Human–wildlife conflicts, particularly human–tiger conflicts (HTCs), have been a prevalent and severe issue in tiger‐range countries from ancient times to the present day, with various regional characteristics. This article discusses human–tiger interactions in China, including different types of HTCs throughout history and the various measures implemented to promote human–tiger coexistence. Employing a historiographic approach, this study is based on case studies. It relies on historical documentation as its primary source, using methods such as literature analysis, digital humanities techniques, and field investigations. The results reveal various forms of direct negative human–tiger interactions, ranging from mild to intense HTCs, as well as other interactions such as tiger trade, medicinal use of tiger parts, and tiger habitat loss and fragmentation due to deforestation and urbanization, all of which have led to reductions in tiger populations. Meanwhile, the study also identifies different conceptions and measures for human–tiger coexistence amidst conflicts, including animal protection and tiger worship in China's history, and modern conservation efforts such as the inclusion of tigers on protection lists, bans on tiger medicine and trade, and the establishment of nature reserves and national parks to protect tiger habitats.

Drivers of human–tiger conflict risk and potential mitigation approaches

AbstractHuman–wildlife conflict has become a significant challenge for conservationists, particularly in areas where endangered species, such as large carnivores, are recovering. If we fail to keep a balance between the interests of humans and wildlife, the human–wildlife conflict can have adverse outcomes. However, the drivers of human–wildlife conflict, and how to mitigate conflict, are often poorly understood. In this study, we aimed to explore the possible causes for and potential mitigating approaches to human–tiger conflict risks through spatiotemporal niche partitioning. Based on data from the reports of Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) preying on cattle and camera trap detection data from 2014 to 2019 in Hunchun, Northeast China, we predicted Amur tiger occurrence and created risk maps of human–tiger potential encounters. We found that Amur tiger occurrence was positively driven by prey distribution and negatively by the distribution of pastures used for domestic cattle grazing. Livestock was increasingly predated in areas with limited preferred prey, that is, wild pig (Sus scrofa) and sika (Cervus nippon), and in closer proximity to cattle‐grazing land. On the basis of our models, we divided areas utilized by human and Amur tigers into low‐, medium‐, and high‐risk areas across multiple spatiotemporal scales. We suppose that multiple spatiotemporal scale niche partitioning management might effectively reduce the risk of human–tiger encounters, prompt harmonized coexistence between humans and tigers, and provide new solutions to other areas experiencing human–wildlife conflicts.

Unveiling prey preferences of endangered wild Malayan tiger, Panthera tigris jacksoni, in Peninsular Malaysia through scat analysis via COI DNA metabarcoding

Understanding the prey preference of Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni) in Malaysia is important to guide conservation planning initiatives. The utilisation of DNA metabarcoding provides valuable insights, particularly in the field of carnivora diet research. This technique has been proven to be effective for identifying various species within complex mixtures such as scat materials, where visual identification is challenging. The Cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) locus has been selected as it is a widely used as an effective non-invasive approach for diet studies. Hence, given this advance approach, Malayan tiger scats were collected on the basis of existing records of their presence in two types of habitats, namely, protected areas (PA) and human–tiger conflict (HTC) areas. This study aimed to identify prey species in Peninsular Malaysia, based on Malayan tiger scat samples using DNA metabarcoding. Based on the partial mitochondrial COI region, DNA metabarcoding led to the taxonomic resolution of prey DNA remnants in scats and the identification of prey species consumed by Malayan tiger, which were predominately small-to-medium-sized prey, including livestock. The dominant DNA prey detected belongs to the family Canidae, followed by Bovidae, Vespertilionidae, Homonidae, Felidae, Phasianidae and Muridae. A significant difference (p < 0.05) was observed in alpha and beta diversity using the Shannon index and PERMANOVA with regard to prey richness and evenness in two different habitat groups, namely, PA and HTC. Our finding provides insights into Malayan tiger dietary requirements, which can be used to develop conservation plans and strategies for Malayan tiger, particularly for habitat priorities.

Energetics‐based connectivity mapping reveals new conservation opportunities for the endangered tiger in Nepal

AbstractEnhancing habitat connectivity is a key strategy for conserving endangered species in anthropogenic landscapes. However, connectivity planning often overlooks the crucial energetic costs to animals of traversing complex terrains. We applied a novel approach for estimating energy costs of movement for tigers – a globally endangered species. We used those estimates to calculate landscape connectivity for these animals across the extreme altitudinal gradient of Nepal, where recent sightings of tigers at higher elevations (~3200 m) suggest an upward range expansion from the tiger‐rich lowlands. To evaluate our estimates, we simulated tiger routes to higher‐elevation locations and compared modeled energy costs of those ascents to those derived from a previous model calibrated with data from GPS‐collared tigers in Russia. In areas below 3200 m, we found about 7.5 times greater land areas with high connectivity outside protected areas (~51 000 km2) than inside (~6800 km2). However, most of the highly connected areas below 3200 m consist of croplands (56%). Importantly, community‐managed forests, which spanned the altitudinal gradient, tended to include areas with moderate levels of connectivity. Our estimates of energy costs and those from Russia showed a strong consensus (ρ = 0.70, P < 0.05), with ours better capturing the higher energy costs of traversing mountains and of very large total ascents. Our results show that while barriers to tiger movement across Nepal are ubiquitous, other effective area‐based conservation measures (OECMs), like community‐managed forests, can play prominent roles in promoting tiger habitat connectivity while minimizing human–tiger conflict across anthropogenic landscapes. Our results also underscore the utility of integrating first principles of energy efficiency into connectivity analyses and planning.

Nature of human–tiger conflict in Indian Sundarban

The Sundarban biosphere reserve is the largest mangrove forest in the world, situated partially in India and Bangladesh. This eco-sensitive estuarine delta is designated by UNESCO as a world heritage site. The population density of this estuarine forest region has been relatively low for a long past, but in last few decades it is increasing rapidly, especially after the partition of India. This is creating an immense pressure on forest resources. Mangrove forest area has been converting into arable land, putting all natural animal and local people in a precarious situation. The Sundarban usually is the home of Royal Bengal Tiger, one of the famous endangered species. Due to massive deforestation the habitat of tigers is being destroyed and as a result tigers sometimes attack nearby villagers. The forest dwellers of Sundarban are dependent on the forest resources for their livelihood for which they collect wax, honey, firewood etc. Such human intervention in the forest is changing the composition of core, outer core and buffer forests of Sundarban. This results an increased human–tiger conflict in the study area. The present research work aims to enquire the probable reason of such. Following an intensive study it has been found that, the outer-core of the forest areas are the most vulnerable part of the forest where most of the human–tiger conflicts have been reported and most of the casualties have been identified among the people who are entirely dependent of forest resources for their livelihood.

Clustered conflicts in disturbed lowlands characterize human–tiger interactions in Aceh, Indonesia

AbstractConflict with humans is a severe threat to critically endangered Sumatran tigers Panthera tigris sumatrae. To better inform human‐tiger conflict (HTC) management in Aceh, Sumatra, we analysed 96 cases of HTC reported to, and verified by, local government authorities between 2017 and 2021. Livestock depredation (49%) and people reporting fear or anxiety upon tiger sightings (39%) comprised most incidents. We found significant differences in the frequency of HTC cases among land cover types in Aceh (x2 = 160.4, df = 4, p < 0.001). During our study period, oil palm plantations covered 9.5% of Aceh's land surface but represented the dominant habitat type in 46.9% of the province's HTC cases. By enabling a better understanding of landscape variables and patterns associated with HTC, this study will help to develop management strategies to advance tiger conservation and support rural livelihoods in Aceh, one of the last remaining Sumatran tiger strongholds.

State of human tiger conflict around Gunung Leuser National Park in Langkat Landscape, North Sumatra, Indonesia

Abstract. Patana P, Alikodra HS, Mawengkang H, Harahap RH. 2023. State of human tiger conflict around Gunung Leuser National Park in Langkat Landscape, North Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 837-846. The Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) is one of the key species which is considered an endangered species by the IUCN (2008). There has also been a recent threat to their population due to conflict with humans. Information about landscape characteristics and livelihood related to human-tiger conflict (HTC) is needed for a proper mitigation strategy based on local parameters. Therefore, this study was carried out around Gunung Leuser National Park (GLNP) using quantitative and qualitative methods. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to analyze and map the risk of HTC using landscape characteristics. The physical factors, including land cover, slope, elevation, distance from rivers, and settlement, were analyzed. The livelihood aspect related to land use change was described descriptively and became a major analysis. The study area is located in the buffer zone of GLNP in Langkat District. The results showed that the Eigen weight value for the slope, elevation, and land cover factor was greater than the distance to the river and settlement. The spatial analysis also revealed that Langkat Landscape was in the medium risk of HTC by covering 60% area, while 40% was in the interval of high to very high risk. Furthermore, the high dependence on land for agriculture and the activity of livestock has become a trigger for more massive HTC in the last three years. It is a challenge in human-tiger conflict mitigation to involve the resolution of people’s livelihoods surrounding the national park. The livelihood approach could be a future solution that bridges human and tiger aspects, in addition to habitat management and protecting conservation areas.

Behaviour change conservation campaign for improved human–tiger coexistence in Nepal

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Settlements and plantations are sites of human–tiger interactions in Riau, Indonesia

AbstractInteractions between the Sumatran tiger Panthera tigris sumatrae and people (e.g. injury or loss of lives of people and tigers, evacuation of injured tigers, loss of livestock and sightings of tigers) can negatively affect the conservation of the subspecies. Land-use change in Sumatra has reduced habitat for tigers, forcing them into human-dominated landscapes and increasing the probability of interactions with people. Although the number of such interactions is high in South-east Asia, few studies have been published since 2000 and for Sumatra there is a lack of information regarding where these events occur. We collated data on human–tiger interactions in the province of Riau using web scraping of news sources published during 2010–2020, and mapped these data to village boundaries. We recorded 101 interaction events, with a total of 107 interactions, which we categorized into seven types (people injured or killed, livestock killed, sightings of tigers, tigers killed, injured or evacuated), in 78 villages. Most interactions with reported locations occurred close to settlements (35%), followed by in plantations (26%) and smallholdings (25%), with forests and forest edges comprising 14% of such events. Interactions were dominated by sightings of tigers, but severe interaction types (human death or injury and attacks on livestock) were also reported. The mean annual number of human–tiger interactions was 4.6 during 2011–2017 and 21.3 during 2017–2020. We highlight the need for mitigation and prevention, such as establishing conflict mitigation teams, improving animal husbandry practices, and providing training and education on human–tiger interactions focused in plantations and settlements.

COVID-19 lockdown and distressed reverse migration enhance human-tiger conflict in Sundarban: An eco-psychiatric observation.

COVID-19 lockdown enforced distressed reverse migration in Sundarban, which caused an unprecedented population addition to the already devastated fragile Sundarban ecosystem. Acute poverty and food crisis prompted many migrants to explore forest-based living, thus enhancing fatal human–tiger conflicts. Families of deceased migrants face significant mental health trauma and catastrophic psychosocial consequences.

189. Potential Tiger-to-Human Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 at a Tennessee Zoo: A One Health Approach to Outbreak Investigation

BackgroundHuman-to-feline and airborne transmission among cats of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been described, though documented feline-to-human transmission has not been reported. In October 2020, all 3 Malayan tigers at a Tennessee AZA accredited zoo were diagnosed with symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection. We investigated to determine source and prevent further transmission.MethodsTiger nasal swab specimens were tested at the National Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSL). An environmental assessment at the zoo was completed. We interviewed 18 staff who interacted with the tigers during the 2 weeks before animal symptom onset. Confirmed human cases were defined as persons testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 by RT-PCR during September 28–October 29, with tiger interaction during their 14-day incubation period. Interviewed staff had repeat SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR and serum IgG testing on October 29. Tigers and staff testing positive had specimens sent to CDC for genomic sequencing. Tiger sequences were compared phylogenetically with 30 geographically associated human cases collected within 2 weeks of the outbreak and > 200 background sequences from TN.ResultsNVSL confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection in all 3 tigers. Environmental assessment identified fencing between humans and animals allowing airflow and an open outdoor exhibit observation point above the habitat. Confirmed cases were identified in a tiger keeper and veterinary assistant; both developed symptoms after exposure to symptomatic tigers and one sample was genotyped. Staff did not report known contact with ill visitors. All staff were negative for SARS-CoV-2 IgG. The tigers and most temporally and geographically associated cases had genetic sequences in clade 20G and B.1.2. Tiger sequences were 3-6 single nucleotide polymorphisms different from the positive tiger keeper (Figure).Figure. Whole-genome phylogenetic analysis. Whole-genome phylogenetic analysis from a portion of clade 20G showing divergence estimates from SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan-Hu-1 reference genome with sequences from humans living in Tennessee and Malayan tigers sampled during the outbreak investigation in October 2020. Sequence analysis showed 3-6 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) differences between one human tiger keeper and all three tiger sequences. Differences are indicated by one-step edges (lines) between colored dots (individual SARS-CoV-2 sequenced infections). Numbers indicate unique sequences. Note not all analyzed sequences are shown in this figure.ConclusionUsing a One Health approach, we concluded the index tiger was likely infected via transmission from an ill visitor at an exhibit observation point or unidentified asymptomatic staff. Infection spread to the other 2 tigers and tiger-to-human transmission to 2 staff is possible thereafter. The zoo was advised on infection control practices for humans and animals, and no additional cases were identified.Disclosures William Schaffner, MD, VBI Vaccines (Consultant)

Causal loop of system thinking in mitigating human tiger conflict based livelihood around Leuser

Human tiger conflict (HTC) has become serious problem in Indonesia in term of conservation effort of Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) since population of this species has declined in recent years. The threat of tiger death increases following the number of conflict accidents with humans. The solution requires a comprehensive approach, because it involves the interests of parties. This research was conducted around Gunung Leuser National Park by purposive sampling in Bahorok (Langkat Regency) and Tapaktuan (South Aceh Regency). This study used the system thinking approach in looking at the variables that affected the complexity of HTC. Analysis of needs resulted variables as controlled input of model that describing by causal loop. This study will see the interrelationship of conflict-causing factors with the livelihoods of forest communities. Five aspects of livelihood that became the focus of research consisted environmental, economic, social, human and physical resources. The causal loop of each variable reflected in a diagram.

Mitigation strategy of human tiger conflict in Leuser Ecosystem using SWOT matrix

Human and tiger conflict (HTC) has become one of the main drivers’ factor of the decline population of the Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae). The Leuser Ecosystem is an important landscape for tiger habitat covering13 districts in Aceh Province and 4 districts in North Sumatra. The purpose of this study was to analyse the HTC mitigation strategy based on internal and external factors at Leuser. The location was chosen by purposive sampling in two potential areas of conflict, namely Timbang Lawan (TL) Village, in Langkat Regency and Panton Luas (PL) Village in South Aceh Regency. These two villages are directly adjacent to the tiger habitat. Data collection was carried out through field observations, interviews and focus group discussions. Respondents are experts and people living in conflict areas. The analysis was carried out using SWOT to measure IFAS (strengths and weaknesses) and EFAS (opportunities and threats). The results of the SWOT analysis show the differences in the mitigation strategies of each location. The comparison of IFAS and EFAS values places Timbang Lawan in quadrant III (WO strategy) while Panton Luas in quadrant I (SO strategy).

Panthera tigris jacksoni Population Crash and Impending Extinction due to Environmental Perturbation and Human-Wildlife Conflict.

Simple SummaryThe Malayan tiger, with less than 200 individuals in Malaysia, is in an intermediate population crash. Anthropogenic disturbances (poaching, roadkill, and human–tiger conflict), environmental perturbation (decreasing habitat quality), and infectious diseases have been identified as factors leading to impending extinction. Preliminary findings from stakeholders indicate Peninsular Malaysia has an existing Malayan Tiger conservation management programme. However, to enhance the protection and conservation of the Malayan Tiger, the authority should re-assess the existing legislation, regulation, and management plan, and realign them to prevent population decline.The critically endangered Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni), with an estimated population of less than 200 individuals left in isolated rainforest habitats in Malaysia, is in an intermediate population crash leading to extinction in the next decade. The population has decreased significantly by illegal poaching, environmental perturbation, roadkill, and being captured during human–wildlife conflicts. Forty-five or more individuals were extracted from the wild (four animals captured due to conflict, one death due to canine distemper, one roadkilled, and 39 poached) in the 12 years between 2008–2019. The Malayan tigers are the first wildlife species to test positive for COVID-19 and are subject to the Canine Distemper Virus. These anthropogenic disturbances (poaching and human–tiger conflict) and environmental perturbation (decreasing habitat coverage and quality) have long been identified as impending extinction factors. Roadkill and infectious diseases have emerged recently as new confounding factors threatening Malayan tiger extinction in the near future. Peninsular Malaysia has an existing Malayan tiger conservation management plan; however, to enhance the protection and conservation of Malayan tigers from potential extinction, the authority should reassess the existing legislation, regulation, and management plan and realign them to prevent further population decline, and to better enable preparedness and readiness for the ongoing pandemic and future threats.

Recovery of tigers in India: Critical introspection and potential lessons

Abstract In a world where biodiversity is on the decline, examples of conservation success especially of large carnivores are of interest to policy makers and conservation practitioners. Herein, we elucidate the conservation actions that have been responsible for the recovery of tigers and their ecosystems in India; a feat many range countries are struggling to achieve. Demand‐driven poaching resulted in extinctions at two prestigious Tiger Reserves. India's Prime Minister constituted a Tiger Task Force that led to the formation of the National Tiger Conservation Authority, the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau, scientific monitoring of tiger populations and incentivized voluntary relocation of human settlements from tiger reserves. Tiger Conservation Plans, cognizant of constraints imposed by small reserves embedded in human land uses, aimed to create source populations within tiger reserves with corridor links between sources and to sink habitats. Metapopulation management enhanced occupancy and long‐term viability of tiger populations. Tiger Protection Force and technology like MSTrIPES, E‐eye and drones effectively reduced poaching. Community support was attempted through profit sharing, mitigating human–tiger conflict with a fast, fair and transparent compensation process and removal of problem tigers. Reintroduction and reinforcement of tigers and prey assisted natural recovery. Political will ensured resources. Tigers were monitored using Spatially Explicit Capture–Recapture with camera traps and ecological covariates. In 2018–2019 from 381,000 km2 of tiger habitat, 89,000 km2 was occupied. Currently, 50 tiger reserves cover 72,750 km2 and harbour 65% of India's ~3,000 tigers. Tiger reserves are managed with an annual investment of ~1,000 USD/km2 with one staff per 6.5 km2. Tiger reserves were regularly evaluated for Management Effectiveness. Tiger reserves were valued to have benefit flows between 76,900 and 292,300 US$ km−2year−1. In the Anthropocene it is unlikely that tigers will survive without targeted conservation investments. Political commitment and resources can become available for conservation when people and tigers benefit simultaneously. Conscious balance by governments between development for rapid economic prosperity and long‐term ecological security will ensure that wild tigers and their intact ecosystems will survive for future generations. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Assessment of Human-Tiger Conflict and its Community Based Mitigation Efforts in Madi Valley of Chitwan District, Nepal


 
 
 Human fatalities and livestock depredation are the ultimate manifestation of human–tiger conflict (HTC). It is one of the major challenging issues that need to be sorted out where such incidences occur frequently. This study aimed to investigate the status of HTC and mitigation measures adopted by local communities in Madi valley adjacent of Chitwan National Park (CNP). Data were collected through household interviews (n=52, including 25% victim’s households), direct field observation and CNP archive records from 2014 to 2018. This study revealed that average livestock depredation was 15.60 (n=78, mean=5.06, SE±1.66) animals per year and among them goats were highly depredated animals (n=39, mean=7.80, SE±2.33). It also showed that livestock depredation trend increased at the rate of 4.1 animals per year but that of human casualties decreased at the rate of -0.3 persons per year during 2014 to 2018. Predation proof corrals, mesh wire fencing, traditional fencing using white cloths andlivelihood diversifications were the major local mitigation efforts adopted by local people. However, detailed studies on effectiveness of locally adopted mitigation techniques along with further investment to implement them from government line agencies and conservation partners are suggested for strengthening human-tiger co-existence in the study area.