Human Tiger Conflicts Research Articles

An integrated historical study on human–tiger interactions in China

AbstractTigers (Panthera tigris), as apex predators, play a crucial role in maintaining ecological functions within their ecosystems. Human–wildlife conflicts, particularly human–tiger conflicts (HTCs), have been a prevalent and severe issue in tiger‐range countries from ancient times to the present day, with various regional characteristics. This article discusses human–tiger interactions in China, including different types of HTCs throughout history and the various measures implemented to promote human–tiger coexistence. Employing a historiographic approach, this study is based on case studies. It relies on historical documentation as its primary source, using methods such as literature analysis, digital humanities techniques, and field investigations. The results reveal various forms of direct negative human–tiger interactions, ranging from mild to intense HTCs, as well as other interactions such as tiger trade, medicinal use of tiger parts, and tiger habitat loss and fragmentation due to deforestation and urbanization, all of which have led to reductions in tiger populations. Meanwhile, the study also identifies different conceptions and measures for human–tiger coexistence amidst conflicts, including animal protection and tiger worship in China's history, and modern conservation efforts such as the inclusion of tigers on protection lists, bans on tiger medicine and trade, and the establishment of nature reserves and national parks to protect tiger habitats.

Nature of human–tiger conflict in Indian Sundarban

The Sundarban biosphere reserve is the largest mangrove forest in the world, situated partially in India and Bangladesh. This eco-sensitive estuarine delta is designated by UNESCO as a world heritage site. The population density of this estuarine forest region has been relatively low for a long past, but in last few decades it is increasing rapidly, especially after the partition of India. This is creating an immense pressure on forest resources. Mangrove forest area has been converting into arable land, putting all natural animal and local people in a precarious situation. The Sundarban usually is the home of Royal Bengal Tiger, one of the famous endangered species. Due to massive deforestation the habitat of tigers is being destroyed and as a result tigers sometimes attack nearby villagers. The forest dwellers of Sundarban are dependent on the forest resources for their livelihood for which they collect wax, honey, firewood etc. Such human intervention in the forest is changing the composition of core, outer core and buffer forests of Sundarban. This results an increased human–tiger conflict in the study area. The present research work aims to enquire the probable reason of such. Following an intensive study it has been found that, the outer-core of the forest areas are the most vulnerable part of the forest where most of the human–tiger conflicts have been reported and most of the casualties have been identified among the people who are entirely dependent of forest resources for their livelihood.

Rising trend of man-tiger conflict at man-nature interface of Indian Sundarbans: study towards traditional understanding and challenging livelihood of Sundarbans people

Sundarbans region has its own unique physiographical, ecological, economical and socio-cultural individuality. As a home of nearly nine million people the entire Sundarbans area has emerged as one of the poorest and malnourished region of the South-east Asia. Man-tiger conflict or tiger attacks in riverside settlements around the Sundarbans Reserve Forest in West Bengal, India are a continuous matter of concern. The principal objective of this research is to identify the reasons behind the increasing human-tiger conflict in Indian Sundarbans. Landsat-8 satellite image (path = 138, row = 45, 30 m spatial resolution and eleven spectral bands) has been used to identify the high possible areas of Man-Tiger conflict within the SBR region. The survey involved 100 respondents selected from Gosaba, Kultali, Basanti and Mathurapur II CD blocks in which 85 respondents aged 50 and above were actively participated in the perceptional survey process. Result showed that major proportion of the Sundarbans people is traditionally dependent on forest resources for maintenance of their livelihood. Research identified the principal factors which have been responsible for increasing man-tiger conflict in Sundarbans such as degeneration of forests, habitat loss due to flood and sea level rise, encroachment into wildlife territories for economic activities, intrusion into human settlements for scarcity of wild pray in forest. Deulbari, Dongajora, Bhuvaneswari are the areas of human-tiger conflicts due to closeness with nearest buffer forest area. The adjoining rivers of these two villages Melmel and Gomor are highly vulnerable due to its proximity of reserve forest.

Predicting negative human-tiger (Panthera tigris) interactions in mosaic landscapes around Dudhwa and Pilibhit tiger reserves in India

Negative interactions between humans and large carnivores like tigers (Panthera tigris) and leopards (Panthera pardus) are of concern for the conservation of these carnivores, as well as for the health and wellbeing of people who experience such interactions routinely. Such interactions not only lead to human deaths, injuries and loss of domestic animals, but also can result in retaliatory persecution of carnivores and cause their population declines. The Dudhwa-Pilibhit landscape in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh is popularly regarded to be the second most affected hotspot of human-tiger conflicts in the country. Yet, very little information is published on human-tiger conflicts in this landscape. In this study, we recorded 7.4 ± 5.8 (range: 1-20) negative interactions per year between people and tigers that led directly to human deaths and injuries. Although there appeared to be peaks in negative interactions in more recent years, these were found to be statistically non-significant. The peaks in the numbers of cases in 2009-10 and 2016-17 can be attributed to higher numbers of human casualties cause by individual ‘problem’ tigers, and not due to an increase in the number of tigers engaging in conflicts. We used binomial generalized linear modelling to model the risk to humans from being attacked by tigers depending on landscape characteristics. This approach demonstrated that the mosaics of forests and human settlements, especially the presence of agriculture, forest patches and waterbodies, were the predominant factors at play. Notably, higher risks were not mediated by the presence of larger cattle population. Proximity of villages to forests or natural vegetation patches was the most significantly contributing factor identified by the model output. This suggested that despite the prevalent perception of attacks on humans occurring in human-dominated areas of this landscape, areas with forests or other natural vegetation entailed higher risks. This was corroborated by field observations, with most attacks occurring within, or close to, forests or dense vegetation. Based on these findings, we recommend that restricting human movements and taking precautionary measures in high-risk areas can significantly reduce negative interactions with tigers in our study area.

COVID-19 lockdown and distressed reverse migration enhance human-tiger conflict in Sundarban: An eco-psychiatric observation.

COVID-19 lockdown enforced distressed reverse migration in Sundarban, which caused an unprecedented population addition to the already devastated fragile Sundarban ecosystem. Acute poverty and food crisis prompted many migrants to explore forest-based living, thus enhancing fatal human–tiger conflicts. Families of deceased migrants face significant mental health trauma and catastrophic psychosocial consequences.

Positive reinforcement conditioning as Sumatran tiger's (Panthera tigris sumatrae) social enrichment at Tambling Wildlife Nature Conservation Rescue Centre, Lampung, Indonesia

Abstract. Kiranaputri G, Sjahfirdi L, Tumbelaka LITA, Yana A, Priyanto SK, Anggarsari LY, Marizal. 2021. Positive reinforcement conditioning as Sumatran tiger's (Panthera tigris sumatrae) social enrichment at Tambling Wildlife Nature Conservation Rescue Centre, Lampung, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 23: 55-61. Tiger individuals are translocated to ex-situ conservations due to human-tiger conflicts and may express behavioral change (stereotypic) in captivity. Furthermore, medical check-up routines may cause injury and stress between tiger and operators under tough circumstances. Positive reinforcement conditioning (PRC) is a well-known method to minimize the risks on medical examination and as social enrichment. Therefore, the purposes of this research are (i) to examine PRC on tiger's blood sample collections and (ii) the correlation between physiological stress and tiger's stereotypic behavior (SB) through the neutrophil per lymphocyte ratio (N/L ratio) method. Four Sumatran tigers’ (1 female, 3 males) behavior were observed using focal animal sampling at Tambling Wildlife Nature Conservation Rescue Centre, Lampung, Indonesia. Each baseline and post-enrichment tiger's behavioral observations were conducted for 1.920 minutes (1 male & 1 female) and 960 minutes (2 males). Then SB was categorized into low (<33,33%), intermediate (33,34-66,66%) or high (>66,67%). Blood collections (BC) were conducted twice (1st without PRC and 2nd with PRC) directly on the tiger after the behavior observation. Tiger's physiological stress during BC was analyzed with Wilcoxon. The correlation between physiological stress and SB was analyzed with Kruskal-Wallis. All tigers’ N/L ratios were in normal value from this present research during both BC. The tigers did not show chronical stress as long this research was conducted. PRC was significantly effective to reduce tiger physiological stress during BC (Z= -0,730, P= 0,465 < 0,05). All tigers showed low (<33,33%) pacing SB (without fur-plucking, self-biting, and self-mutilation behavior) both in baseline and post-enrichment. Any fur-plucking, self-biting & self-mutilation behaviors were not observed. Physiological stress was not correlated to SB ( = 3, P= 0,392 > 0,05). The PRC was an appropriate and effective tool to handle Sumatran tigers during BC. These tigers performed SB as a coping mechanism in the enclosure.

Exploring Inter-Relationships among Human-Tiger Conflicts, Human Capital Outcomes for Forest Dependent Communities and the Sustainability of Tiger Habitats

I develop a bio-economic model to analyse how human-tiger conflicts (HTCs) impact on forest dependent community members’ decisions to invest in human capital via education. I further explore the linkages between human capital outcomes and future sustainability of the forests as well as of the tiger populations. Results suggest that the risk of human mortality arising from HTCs could play a crucial role in determining human capital investment decisions. Specifically, lower HTC risk delays efforts to increase human capital via education. Furthermore, when the chances of finding employment are not very high, or when expected income in the skilled sector is not very high, communities delay human capital accumulation and prolong reliance on forest-based livelihoods, thereby increasing HTC risks. Low-growth forests can also promote early human capital investments. Finally, the manner in which HTC risks are affected by community actions can also influence their livelihood-based decisions.

Ranging, Activity and Habitat Use by Tigers in the Mangrove Forests of the Sundarban.

The Sundarban of India and Bangladesh (about 6000 km²) are the only mangrove forests inhabited by a sizeable population of tigers. The adjoining area also supports one of the highest human densities and experiences severe human-tiger conflicts. We used GPS-Satellite and VHF radio-collars on 6 (3 males and 3 female) tigers to study their ranging patterns and habitat preference. The average home range (95% Fixed Kernel) for resident females was 56.4 (SE 5.69) and for males it was 110 (SE 49) km². Tigers crossed an average of 5 water channels > 30 meters per day with a mean width of 54 meters, whereas channels larger than 400 meters were rarely crossed. Tigers spent over 58% of their time within Phoenix habitat but compositional analysis showed a habitat preference of the order Avicennia-Sonneratia > Phoenix > Ceriops > Barren > Water. Average daily distance moved was 4.6 km (range 0.1–23). Activity of tigers peaked between 05:00 hours and 10:00 hours showing some overlap with human activity. Territory boundaries were demarcated by large channels which tigers intensively patrolled. Extra caution should be taken while fishing or honey collection during early morning in Avicennia-Sonneratia and Phoenix habitat types along wide channels to reduce human-tiger conflict. Considering home-range core areas as exclusive, tiger density was estimated at 4.6 (SE range 3.6 to 6.7) tigers/100 km2 giving a total population of 76 (SE range 59–110) tigers in the Indian Sundarban. Reluctance of tigers to cross wide water channels combined with increasing commercial boat traffic and sea level rise due to climate change pose a real threat of fragmenting the Sundarban tiger population.

Characterizing human–tiger conflict in and around Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve, western India

Human–carnivore interactions often influence carnivore conservation and result in mitigating conflicts. We studied human–tiger (Panthera tigris) conflicts in pastoral villages adjacent to Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve (RTR), Rajasthan, India for 6 years (2005–2011) and characterized and examined the causes of conflicts. We recorded 113 human–tiger conflicts. Most of the conflicts between humans and tigers were from attacks on domestic livestock (88.5 %) and humans (11.5 %). Among livestock, cows, bulls, and calves accounted for 31.6, 21.1, and 16.7 %, respectively, of tiger kills followed by buffalos (19.3 %) and goats (11.4 %). Locations of depredations on livestock occurred inside villages (53.4 %), agriculture fields (44.5 %), and forests (1.9 %). We recorded 13 attacks on humans: nine were nonlethal, but four resulted in death. Attacks on humans occurred in agriculture fields (n = 6), forests (n = 5), and within <500 m of villages (n = 2). Attacks on humans and livestock varied seasonally, with the highest conflicts in summer (n = 36) and during the monsoon (n = 42). Factors that may have caused human–tiger conflicts include tiger movements, fragmentation of corridors, and human disturbance. Some of the insurance from compensation for deaths and injury could be used to mitigate conflicts, as has been done with other larger cats to minimize conflicts.

Discovery of a tiger (Panthera tigris (L.)) skeleton from the Little Ice Age buried on the shore of Qinghai Lake, northeast Tibet Plateau

A nearly intact skeleton of a large mammal was unearthed on the north bank of the Qinghai Lake, at the northeastern edge of the Tibet Plateau in 2012. In this paper, the skeleton was identified as the remains of a sub-adult tiger (Panthera tigris) based on the analysis of its osteomorphological characteristics. The tiger remains were dated to 1648–1812 AD according to the direct AMS radiocarbon date on one of its bones, corresponding to the Little Ice Age (LIA, 1450–1850 AD), when the Qinghai Lake level was lower than 3203 m a.s.l. The region around Qinghai Lake was not a favourable habitat for wild tigers for the last 100 years. With the comparative review of historic records and relevant literature, we surmised that the tiger might have migrated from Shaanxi and Gansu Provinces, probably due to the exacerbated human-tiger conflicts resulting from the huge human population growth and migration events during the Qing Dynasty.

Causes, Consequences and Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Conflicts Caused by Tiger Straying Incidents in Sundarban, India

An increasing number of tigers are leaving natural mangrove habitats and straying into the surrounding villages in the Indian Sundarban. This creates a serious hazard for humans, livestock and tigers. Household surveys in villages adjacent to the mangroves found 237 incidents of tigers straying during 1995–2010. An average of 14 tigers strays into villages per year. Consequences of tigers straying include, villagers killed (N = 7) or injured (N = 73), tiger predation on livestock (N = 242), and villagers killing tigers (N = 12). Most (68 %) of tigers leaving the mangroves were male. Of female tigers, most (65 %) had litters and were accompanied by their cubs. Confusing riverside plantations with jungles or confusing paddy fields with wild grasses (31.12 % combined) and predation of domestic livestock (26.96 %) are two main reasons for tigers straying. Tigers may also prefer domestic livestock over wild boar and deer as hunting livestock is easier than hunting natural prey in mangroves. Benefit, cost ratios for human–tiger conflicts were calculated at 0.81–0.92: 1. Appropriate compensation and a strategy of prey population increase might provide solutions to existing problems.

Framing the tiger — A biodiversity concern in national and international media reporting

International forest and environmental governance processes assume that ideas and concepts surrounding biodiversity at the international level will be made accessible at a national level so that they can be easily adopted by national forest and environmental policy arenas. One prerequisite for a seamless implementation of these ideas and concepts is a common definition of specific problems at different political levels. Different perceptions mirrored by media reporting on problems at different political levels may affect the implementation of policies that must be carried out at a national level, even if decisions concerning this implementation are made at an international level. Using the illustrative case of human–tiger interaction, this article shows how national and international media reporting differ in their framing of a particular problem. Based on a theoretical framework consisting framing and media selection theory, and on initial empirical observations, the article recommends blueprints for future in-depth research on the relationship between media framing and policy at different political levels. This case study is based on quantitative content analysis of reports on tiger–human interaction published between 2005 and 2010 in an international newspaper and a national one from Bangladesh. Our example shows that the selected national newspaper frames the tiger as a threat to the livelihood and well-being of local people, whereas the international newspaper stresses biodiversity and climate-change related aspects of human–tiger conflicts. These results indicate that the framing of an issue in the media can differ considerably at different levels and that this is a fruitful field for future in-depth research.

Utility of a psychological framework for carnivore conservation

AbstractConserving threatened carnivore species increasingly depends on the capacity of local people to cohabit with those species. To examine such capacity we developed a novel psychological framework for conservation in regions of the world where there are human–carnivore conflicts, and used the Endangered tiger Panthera tigris to explore the utility of this framework. Specifically, we tested three hypotheses in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, where increasing human–tiger conflicts potentially jeopardize long-term coexistence. We administered a survey to 499 individuals living &lt; 2 km from the Park and in nearby multiple-use forest, to record preferred future tiger population size and factors that may influence preferences, including past interactions with tigers (e.g. livestock predation) and beliefs and perceptions about tigers. Over 17% of respondents reported that a tiger had attacked their livestock or threatened them directly. Results from a structural equation model indicated that respondents who preferred fewer tigers in the future were less likely to associate tigers with beneficial attributes, more likely to associate tigers with undesirable attributes, and more likely to believe that government officials poorly manage tiger-related risks and that people are vulnerable to risks from tigers. Our framework can help address current and future conservation challenges because it (1) integrates an expansive and generalized set of psychological concepts, (2) enables the identification of conservation interventions that foster coexistence between people and carnivores, and (3) is suitable for broad application.

Serosurvey of Free-ranging Amur Tigers in the Russian Far East

Wild Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica, n=44) from the Russian Far East were tested for antibodies to feline leukemia virus, feline corona virus (FCoV), feline immunodeficiency virus, feline parvovirus (FPV), canine distemper virus (CDV), Toxoplasma gondii, and Bartonella henselae. Antibodies to FCoV, CDV, FPV, and T. gondii were detected in 43, 15, 68, and 42% of tigers, respectively. No differences were detected in antibody prevalence estimates between tigers captured as part of a research program and those captured to mitigate human-tiger conflicts. Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) were tested as a potential source for CDV; 16% were vaccinated against CDV and 58% of unvaccinated dogs were antibody positive for CDV. A high percentage of tigers were exposed to potential pathogens that could affect the survival of this species. We recommend continued monitoring of wild tigers throughout Asia, development of standardized sampling and postmortem examination procedures, and additional research to better understand potential domestic and wild animal sources for these pathogens.

Human–tiger conflict: A review and call for comprehensive plans

Human-tiger (Panthera tigris Linnaeus, 1758) conflicts (HTC), manifested primarily as attacks on people and domestic animals, exacerbate at least 2 major threats to tigers: (i) conflicts often result in mortality or removal of tigers from the wild; and (ii) they result in negative attitudes towards tigers by local people, thereby reducing support for tiger conservation. Although HTC has decreased over the past century, it will likely increase if current and proposed conservation initiatives to double tiger populations are successful. Increased HTC could undermine successful conservation initiatives if proactive steps are not taken to reduce HTC. The present paper provides a review of the impacts of HTC and the measures taken to reduce it in ways that reduce negative impacts on both humans and tigers, and stresses the need for development and implementation of comprehensive plans to reduce HTC.

Conflicts between Amur (Siberian) tigers and humans in the Russian Far East

In 1999, the Russian Federation created a Tiger Response Team (TRT) to investigate and intervene in human–tiger conflicts. We examined data collected on human-Amur tiger ( Panthera tigris altaica) conflicts from January 2000 through February 2009 to: (1) summarize and characterize human–tiger conflicts in the area, (2) examine causes of human–tiger conflicts, and (3) attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of the TRT. The team investigated 202 conflicts. Both attacks on humans and depredations were greatest in winter ( X 2 = 9, df = 3, P = 0.03 and X 2 = 64, df = 3, P < 0.001, respectively). Tiger depredation on domestic animals was the most common type of conflict reported (57%), followed by tigers near human habitations (22%), miscellaneous conflicts (12%), and attacks on humans (9%). Dogs were killed more commonly than other domestic animals (63% of 254 animals), likely because livestock were well managed. Nineteen attacks on humans were recorded resulting in 11 injuries and 2 deaths. Nearly four tigers per year ( n = 32 tigers) died, were killed, or were removed from the wild, and all but 1 of 20 tigers killed or removed from the wild by the TRT were considered unfit to survive in the wild. Attacks on humans ( n = 19) were most often (77%) by wounded tigers (80% of injuries were human-caused) and commonly provoked (47% of attacks). The effectiveness of interventions focused on reducing depredation on domestic animals was unclear, but data suggested that removal of injured and other unhealthy tigers from the wild by the Tiger Response Team resulted in fewer human deaths. Our recommendations include that the TRT continues to work to reduce conflict by rapidly removing debilitated tigers from the wild, explores different methods and technologies for reducing depredation on domestic animals, and increases their efforts to maintain tigers in the wild through telemetry monitoring, translocation, and rehabilitation of orphaned cubs. Further, standardized data should be collected to evaluate all interventions, with information from evaluation guiding an adaptive management component of their human–tiger conflict mitigation activities. This process should occur across tiger landscapes in Asia to allow rapid assessment of interventions.

Assessment and Management Options of Human-Tiger Conflicts in Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia

Abstract. This paper aimed to investigate human-tiger conflict during the year 2000–2004 and has reviewed a number of potential measures for resolving the conflicts as part of conserving the Sumatran tigers which can be applied in the study area. These include technical measures which deal mainly with the individual ‘problem’ animal that comes into conflict and human dimension measures which focus on raising human tolerance toward tigers and reducing the negative effects of co-existence between human and tigers. Some of the measures namely, disruptive stimuli modification, raising tolerance through education and cultural perspective approaches had been tried for a short period. The success or otherwise of these measures in the field have also contributed to the conclusions drawn and the recommendations made as a result. The data are supplemented with more information, including the insight on the effect of conflicts between inhabitant and wildlife, the perspectives of villagers regarding human-tiger confl...

Factors associated with human-killing tigers in Chitwan National Park, Nepal

Human-killing is the ultimate expression of human–tiger conflict. It is a complex issue that needs to be addressed to maintain support for tiger ( Panthera tigris) conservation in areas where human-killing is prevalent. This research was undertaken to investigate the ecological and sociological aspects of human-killing in the central lowlands of Nepal. We used 28 years of data from human-killing events in Chitwan National Park and the surrounding area to: (1) document the geographic distribution of human-killing incidents, (2) examine ecological variables associated with sites where humans were killed, (3) characterize human-killing tigers, and (4) identify human activities that make people vulnerable to attack. Finally, we use this information to recommend strategies to reduce human–tiger conflicts. Data on human-killing incidents and removal of human-killing tigers were obtained from veterinarian and Kathmandu Zoo records and by visiting the location of each kill with a victim’s family member or friend. Thirty-six tigers killed 88 people from 1979 to 2006. Most (66%) kills were made within 1 km of forest edge but equally in degraded and intact forests. An equal number of male and female tigers killed humans and 56% of tigers that were examined had physical deformities. The trend of human deaths increased significantly from an average of 1.2 (±1.2) persons per year prior to 1998 to 7.2 (±6.9) per year from 1998 to 2006. This difference is due primarily to a ten fold increase in killing in the buffer zone since 1998 because of forest restoration. Nearly half the people killed were grass/fodder collectors. Local participation in tiger management and conservation is essential to mitigate human–tiger conflicts. We recommend that villagers be recruited to help radio collar and monitor potentially dangerous tigers, participate in long term tiger monitoring, and attend a tiger conservation awareness program focused on tiger behavior and avoidance of conflict.