Human Social Functioning Research Articles

MarmoDetector: A novel 3D automated system for the quantitative assessment of marmoset behavior

BackgroundCallithrix jacchus, generally known as the common marmoset, has recently garnered interest as an experimental primate model for better understanding the basis of human social behavior, architecture and function. Modelling human neurological and psychological diseases in marmosets can enhance the knowledge obtained from rodent research for future pre-clinical studies. Hence, comprehensive and quantitative assessments of marmoset behaviors are crucial. However, systems for monitoring and analyzing marmoset behaviors have yet to be established. New methodIn this paper, we present a novel multimodal system, MarmoDetector, for the automated 3D analysis of marmoset behavior under freely moving conditions. MarmoDetector allows the quantitative assessment of marmoset behaviors using computerised tracking analysis techniques that are based on a Kinect system equipped with video recordings, infrared images and depth analysis. ResultsUsing MarmoDetector, we assessed behavioral circadian rhythms continuously over several days in home cages. In addition, MarmoDetector detected acute, transient complex behaviors of alcohol injected marmosets. Comparison to existing methodCompared to 2D recording, MarmoDetector detects activities more precisely and is very sensitive as we could detect behavioral defects specifically induced by alcohol administration. ConclusionMarmoDetector facilitates the rapid and accurate analysis of marmoset behavior and will enhance research on the neural basis of brain disorders.

A Longitudinal Multilevel Study of the "Social" Genotype and Diversity of the Phenotype.

Sociability and social domain-related behaviors have been associated with better well-being and endogenous oxytocin levels. Inspection of the literature, however, reveals that the effects between sociability and health outcomes, or between sociability and genotype, are often weak or inconsistent. In the field of personality psychology, the social phenotype is often measured by error-prone assessments based on different theoretical frameworks, which can partly explain the inconsistency of the previous findings. In this study, we evaluated the generalizability of “sociability” measures by partitioning the population variance in adulthood sociability using five indicators from three personality inventories and assessed in two to four follow-ups over a 15-year period (n = 1,573 participants, 28,323 person-observations; age range 20–50 years). Furthermore, we tested whether this variance partition would shed more light to the inconsistencies surrounding the “social” genotype, by using four genetic variants (rs1042778, rs2254298, rs53576, rs3796863) previously associated with a wide range of human social functions. Based on our results, trait (between-individual) variance explained 23% of the variance in overall sociability, differences between sociability indicators explained 41%, state (within-individual) variance explained 5% and measurement errors explained 32%. The genotype was associated only with the sociability indicator variance, suggesting it has specific effects on sentimentality and emotional sharing instead of reflecting general sociability.

The role of oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) DNA methylation (DNAm) in human social and emotional functioning: a systematic narrative review

BackgroundThe neuropeptide Oxytocin (OXT) plays a central role in birthing, mother-infant bonding and a broad range of related social behaviours in mammals. More recently, interest has extended to epigenetic programming of genes involved in oxytocinergic neurotransmission. This review brings together early findings in a rapidly developing field of research, examining relationships between DNA methylation (DNAm) of the Oxytocin Receptor Gene (OXTR) and social and emotional behaviour in human populations.MethodA systematic search across Web of Knowledge/Science, Scopus, Medline and EMBASE captured all published studies prior to June 2017 examining the association between OXTR DNAm and human social and emotional outcomes. Search terms included ‘oxytocin gene’ or ‘oxytocin receptor gene’ and ‘epigenetics’ or ‘DNA methylation’. Any article with a focus on social and emotional functioning was then identified from this set by manual review.ResultsNineteen studies met eligibility criteria. There was considerable heterogeneity of study populations, tissue samples, instrumentation, measurement, and OXTR site foci. Only three studies examined functional consequences of OXTR DNAm on gene expression and protein synthesis. Increases in OXTR DNAm were associated with callous-unemotional traits in youth, social cognitive deficits in Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD), rigid thinking in anorexia nervosa, affect regulation problems, and problems with facial and emotional recognition. In contrast, reductions in DNAm were associated with perinatal stress, postnatal depression, social anxiety and autism in children.ConclusionsConsistent with an emerging field of inquiry, there is not yet sufficient evidence to draw conclusions about the role of OXTR DNAm in human social and emotional behaviour. However, taken together, findings point to increased OXTR DNAm in general impairments in social, cognitive and emotional functioning, and decreased OXTR DNAm in specific patterns of impairment related to mood and anxiety disorders (but not in all). Future progress in this field would be enhanced by adequately powered designs, greater phenotypic precision, and methodological improvements including longitudinal studies with multiple time-points to facilitate causal inference.

Individual, family and environment as the subject of research in social pedagogy – development and transformations

Individual, family and environment as the subject of research in social pedagogy – development and transformations

Feature and motion-based gaze cuing is linked with reduced social competence

Gaze following is a fundamental ability that plays an important role in human social function. However, the link between these two processes remains elusive. On the one hand, typically developing persons show robust gaze following in laboratory cuing tasks. On the other hand, investigations with individuals with autism suggest that reduced social competence in this population may partly reflect an atypical access to social information through attending to perceptual changes that normally accompany gaze shifts, like luminance or motion transients. Here we investigated if gaze cuing in typically developing individuals was modulated by similar task-irrelevant perceptual changes. In Experiment 1, a social gaze cue was presented with or without a luminance change. In Experiment 2, a social gaze cue was presented together with a motion cue. Both experiments indicated reduced magnitudes of gaze cuing in persons with low social competence on trials containing an irrelevant perceptual change. This suggests that similarly to individuals with autism, typically developing persons with low social competence also utilize idiosyncratic perceptual changes in the environment to access social content, revealing strong links between basic gaze following abilities and a range of social competence within typical individuals.

Moral Reasoning in Children with Focal Brain Insults to Frontotemporal Regions

Neuroscientific evidence indicates that human social functioning is supported by a distributed network of frontal and temporal brain regions that undergoes significant development during childhood and adolescence. Clinical studies of individuals with early brain insults (EBI) to frontotemporal regions suggest that such lesions may interfere with the maturation of sociocognitive skills and lead to increased sociobehavioural problems. However, little attention has focussed on the direct assessment of sociocognitive skills, such as moral reasoning, following focal EBI. In the present study, the performance of 15 patients with focal EBI (8–16 years) was compared to that of 15 demographically matched controls on basic neuropsychological measures (IQ and executive functions), sociocognitive tasks (moral reasoning, moral decision-making and empathy) and parent reports of sociobehavioural problems and social adaptive skills. Patients with focal EBI had significantly lower levels of moral reasoning maturity, moral decision-making, and empathy than their matched controls, but did not differ on more general measures of cognition. Their parents also reported increased sociobehavioural problems. These findings suggest that focal EBI to frontotemporal regions can result in reduced sociocognitive capacities, more specifically moral reasoning, and increased vulnerability to sociobehavioural problems.

The Eyes as Windows Into Other Minds

Eyes have been shown to play a key role during human social interactions. However, to date, no comprehensive cross-discipline model has provided a framework that can account for uniquely human responses to eye cues. In this review, I present a framework that brings together work on the phylogenetic, ontogenetic, and neural bases of perceiving and responding to eyes. Specifically, I argue for a two-process model: a first process that ensures privileged attention to information encoded in the eyes and is important for the detection of other minds and a second process that permits the decoding of information contained in the eyes concerning another person’s emotional and mental states. To some degree, these processes are unique to humans, emerge during different times in infant development, can be mapped onto distinct but interconnected brain regions, and likely serve critical functions in facilitating cooperative interactions in humans. I also present evidence to show that oxytocin is a key modulator of sensitive responding to eye cues. Viewing eyes as windows into other minds can therefore be considered a hallmark feature of human social functioning deeply rooted in our biology.

Spirituality and Religion: Neglected Factors in Preventing Veteran Suicide?

The Clay Hunt Suicide Prevention for American Veterans Act, enacted in 2015, aimed to increase access to treatment for U.S. military veterans; however, poor attendance at aftercare and high rates of treatment refusal suggest that, even when treatment is accessible, it may not be acceptable. Often, it is difficult to acknowledge the need for help and to commit to treatment. The stigma of mental illness diminishes the self-respect of individuals with mental health problems and may be especially acute for veterans because of the centrality of resilience in military culture. This stigma also can jeopardize current employment or prospects for future employment. This paper proposes a partial answer to the question, “What more might be done to engage and effectively treat veterans who are at high risk of suicide?” The meaning of spiritual and/or religious expression in human development, well-being, and social functioning has long been of great interest to theorists in disciplines as diverse as sociology, theology, and psychology. Some empirical studies have further suggested that certain religious and/or spiritual beliefs, practices, and/or affiliations may be protective against suicide. This paper (a) summarizes these perspectives, (b) considers how clinical inquiry into the role of religion and/or spirituality in the lives of veterans at high risk of suicide fits into the suicide prevention program of the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, and (c) offers specific recommendations to practitioners.

THE ROLE OF SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE IN THE SOCIALIZATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL

The article presents an analysis of the construct of "social intelligence" in the context of investigation of violation of socialization and adaptation processes, as well as formation of victimization of the individual in contemporary sociocultural catches. The paper presents an analysis of the main approaches to the understanding of social intelligence, as well as its relations with various kinds of competence of the individual. The article considered causes and effects of difficulties in social functioning of the individual. A retrospective analysis of development of the concept of "social intelligence" in domestic and foreign psychological science, its relationship with such concepts as "communicative competence", "social competence", "social and perceptual competence" is presented. Analysis and synthesis of these approaches has led to the assumption of the role of social intelligence in determining the socialization process, and makes it possible to offer a new approach to solving the problem of violations of human social functioning.

“Sweet girls and naughty boys”. Aggression and gender: differences, interdependence, consequences

The article deals with the relationship between aggression and gender, with particular emphasis on gender differences referring to the way in which aggression is shown and to the propensity for violent behaviour it affects. For at least several years, researchers examining gender in society have indicated that human social functioning (i.e. positions occupied, roles performed, status achieved) is determined by the gender to which one belongs. Gender differences generate different types of behaviour, actions and interactions between men and women. As a consequence of these differences, there are different needs, interests, systems of communication and expression, problem-solving and conflict-solving styles, ways of coping with stress. Femininity and masculinity are sociocultural structures in binary opposition to each other, reflected by differences between the ways aggression is released or unloaded.

Pupillary responses reveal infants’ discrimination of facial emotions independent of conscious perception

Sensitive responding to others’ emotions is essential during social interactions among humans. There is evidence for the existence of subcortically mediated emotion discrimination processes that occur independent of conscious perception in adults. However, only recently work has begun to examine the development of automatic emotion processing systems during infancy. In particular, it is unclear whether emotional expressions impact infants’ autonomic nervous system regardless of conscious perception. We examined this question by measuring pupillary responses while subliminally and supraliminally presenting 7-month-old infants with happy and fearful faces. Our results show greater pupil dilation, indexing enhanced autonomic arousal, in response to happy compared to fearful faces regardless of conscious perception. Our findings suggest that, early in ontogeny, emotion discrimination occurs independent of conscious perception and is associated with differential autonomic responses. This provides evidence for the view that automatic emotion processing systems are an early-developing building block of human social functioning.

Sensitive periods in human social development: New insights from research on oxytocin, synchrony, and high-risk parenting

Sensitive periods (SP) in behavioral development appeared in the biological sciences during the first decade of the 20th century, and research in animal models beginning in the 1950s provide terminology and evidence for SP effects. This paper proposes a rigorous program for human SP research and argues that the complexity of the human brain and variability of the human ecology necessitate that SP effects must be studied in humans, employ longitudinal designs starting at birth, test mechanism-based hypotheses based on animal studies that manipulate early environments, and utilize high-risk conditions as "natural experiments." In light of research on the molecular basis of critical periods and their sequential cascades, it is proposed that the oxytocin (OT) system, an ancient and integrative system that cross-talks with the stress, reward, immune, and brain stem mediated homeostatic systems and supports mammalian sociality, plays a unique role in experience-dependent plasticity that buttresses SP effects due to its (a) dendritic mode of release leading to autoregulated functioning primed by early experience, (b) pulsatile pattern of activity, and (c) special role in neural plasticity at the molecular and network assembly levels. Synchrony, the coordination of biology and behavior during social contact, is suggested as a mechanism by which SP exert their effect on OT functionality, the social brain, and adult sociality. Findings from four high-risk birth cohorts, each followed repeatedly from birth to 10 years, provide unique "natural experiments" for human SP research based on specific programs in animal models. These include prematurity (maternal proximity), multiple birth (peer rearing), postpartum depression (low licking and grooming), and chronic unpredictable trauma (maternal rotation, variable foraging demands). In each cohort, hypotheses are based on the missing environmental component during SP, and findings on social synchrony, OT functionality, stress response, emotion regulation, and mental health accord with the multilevel and dynamic principles of developmental psychopathology. The results on the potential for reparation versus chronicity following early deprivation highlight a flexible conceptualization of resilience based on human SP research. Consideration of SP effects at the molecular, endocrine, brain, and behavioral levels and in relation to the neural plasticity and multifinality of human social functions may assist in fine-tuning early detection and the construction of targeted individualized interventions.

Neural signatures of conscious and unconscious emotional face processing in human infants

Human adults can process emotional information both with and without conscious awareness, and it has been suggested that the two processes rely on partly distinct brain mechanisms. However, the developmental origins of these brain processes are unknown. In the present event-related brain potential (ERP) study, we examined the brain responses of 7-month-old infants in response to subliminally (50 and 100 msec) and supraliminally (500 msec) presented happy and fearful facial expressions. Our results revealed that infants' brain responses (Pb and Nc) over central electrodes distinguished between emotions irrespective of stimulus duration, whereas the discrimination between emotions at occipital electrodes (N290 and P400) only occurred when faces were presented supraliminally (above threshold). This suggests that early in development the human brain not only discriminates between happy and fearful facial expressions irrespective of conscious perception, but also that, similar to adults, supraliminal and subliminal emotion processing relies on distinct neural processes. Our data further suggest that the processing of emotional facial expressions differs across infants depending on their behaviorally shown perceptual sensitivity. The current ERP findings suggest that distinct brain processes underpinning conscious and unconscious emotion perception emerge early in ontogeny and can therefore be seen as a key feature of human social functioning.

Shared identity is key to effective communication.

The ability to communicate with others is one of the most important human social functions, yet communication is not always investigated from a social perspective. This research examined the role that shared social identity plays in communication effectiveness using a minimal group paradigm. In two experiments, participants constructed a model using instructions that were said to be created by an ingroup or an outgroup member. Participants made models of objectively better quality when working from communications ostensibly created by an ingroup member (Experiments 1 and 2). However, this effect was attenuated when participants were made aware of a shared superordinate identity that included both the ingroup and the outgroup (Experiment 2). These findings point to the importance of shared social identity for effective communication and provide novel insights into the social psychology of communication.

Unconscious discrimination of social cues from eye whites in infants.

Human eyes serve two key functions in face-to-face social interactions: they provide cues about a person's emotional state and attentional focus (gaze direction). Both functions critically rely on the morphologically unique human sclera and have been shown to operate even in the absence of conscious awareness in adults. However, it is not known whether the ability to respond to social cues from scleral information without conscious awareness exists early in human ontogeny and can therefore be considered a foundational feature of human social functioning. In the current study, we used event-related brain potentials (ERPs) to show that 7-mo-old infants discriminate between fearful and nonfearful eyes (experiment 1) and between direct and averted gaze (experiment 2), even when presented below the perceptual threshold. These effects were specific to the human sclera and not seen in response to polarity-inverted eyes. Our results suggest that early in ontogeny the human brain detects social cues from scleral information even in the absence of conscious awareness. The current findings support the view that the human eye with its prominent sclera serves critical communicative functions during human social interactions.

The evolution of music and human social capability.

Music is a core human experience and generative processes reflect cognitive capabilities. Music is often functional because it is something that can promote human well-being by facilitating human contact, human meaning, and human imagination of possibilities, tying it to our social instincts. Cognitive systems also underlie musical performance and sensibilities. Music is one of those things that we do spontaneously, reflecting brain machinery linked to communicative functions, enlarged and diversified across a broad array of human activities. Music cuts across diverse cognitive capabilities and resources, including numeracy, language, and space perception. In the same way, music intersects with cultural boundaries, facilitating our “social self” by linking our shared experiences and intentions. This paper focuses on the intersection between the neuroscience of music, and human social functioning to illustrate the importance of music to human behaviors.

Plasma oxytocin concentrations and OXTR polymorphisms predict social impairments in children with and without autism spectrum disorder

The neuropeptide oxytocin (OXT) and its receptor (OXTR) regulate social functioning in animals and humans. Initial clinical research suggests that dysregulated plasma OXT concentrations and/or OXTR SNPs may be biomarkers of social impairments in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We do not know, however, whether OXT dysregulation is unique to ASD or whether OXT biology influences social functioning more generally, thus contributing to, but not causing, ASD phenotypes. To distinguish between these possibilities, we tested in a child ASD cohort, which included unaffected siblings and unrelated neurotypical controls (ages 3-12 y; n = 193), whether plasma OXT concentrations and OXTR SNPs (i) interact to produce ASD phenotypes, (ii) exert differential phenotypic effects in ASD vs. non-ASD children, or (iii) have similar phenotypic effects independent of disease status. In the largest cohort tested to date, we found no evidence to support the OXT deficit hypothesis of ASD. Rather, OXT concentrations strongly and positively predicted theory of mind and social communication performance in all groups. Furthermore, OXT concentrations showed significant heritability between ASD-discordant siblings (h(2) = 85.5%); a heritability estimate on par with that of height in humans. Finally, carriers of the "G" allele of rs53576 showed impaired affect recognition performance and carriers of the "A" allele of rs2254298 exhibited greater global social impairments in all groups. These findings indicate that OXT biology is not uniquely associated with ASD, but instead exerts independent, additive, and highly heritable influences on individual differences in human social functioning, including the severe social impairments which characterize ASD.

CC2D1A Regulates Human Intellectual and Social Function as well as NF-κB Signaling Homeostasis

SUMMARYAutism spectrum disorder (ASD) and intellectual disability (ID) are often comorbid, but the extent to which they share common genetic causes remains controversial. Here, we present two autosomal-recessive “founder” mutations in the CC2D1A gene causing fully penetrant cognitive phenotypes, including mild-to-severe ID, ASD, as well as seizures, suggesting shared developmental mechanisms. CC2D1A regulates multiple intracellular signaling pathways, and we found its strongest effect to be on the transcription factor nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). Cc2d1a gain and loss of function both increase activation of NF-κB, revealing a critical role of Cc2d1a in homeostatic control of intra-cellular signaling. Cc2d1a knockdown in neurons reduces dendritic complexity and increases NF-κB activity, and the effects of Cc2d1a depletion can be rescued by inhibiting NF-κB activity. Homeostatic regulation of neuronal signaling pathways provides a mechanism whereby common founder mutations could manifest diverse symptoms in different patients.

How task shapes the use of information during facial expression categorizations.

Accurate classification of the emotional state of others is of vital importance to human social functioning and is a process that relies heavily upon the extraction and processing of specific visual cues from faces. Although the successful identification of a given facial expression has been shown to rely on the processing of specific visual features, it remains largely unknown how fixed the processing of these specific visual cues actually is. In a series of experiments we tested if observers make use of different visual information from expressive faces depending on the nature of the categorization task. To this end, we determined the facial features crucial for the categorization of three key facial expressions of emotion (fear, disgust, and anger) during "expressive or neutral" and "which expression" categorization tasks. For fearful categorizations we observed that the same high spatial-frequency features were consistently used irrespective of task, but that low spatial-frequency features were important only in limited comparison tasks with one or two alternative comparison categories. Moreover, information use from the low spatial frequency bands was not fixed and varied depending on the comparison categories used in the task as participants made use of the most salient visual information available to perform the task at hand. These results provide novel evidence of flexible information use in categorizing expressive faces and highlight the crucial importance of the nature of categorization task in determining the spatial-frequency features that are attended to and encoded during the categorization of facial expressions of emotion.

Are You Looking at Me? Students Tend Not to Sit Facing Strangers

Eye contact is associated with multiple human social functions. These include social dominance displays or contests and signaling interest in potential romantic partners, functions more prominent for men and women respectively. People may actively avoid situations that could create a dynamic of initiating social attention without further communication. We observed seating patterns in a university cafeteria during off-peak hours. We predicted that individuals arriving alone would avoid sitting facing others and that women would be relatively less likely to sit facing a male stranger than vice versa. Only 14% of individuals arriving alone sat directly facing another individual not at the same table, however we did not have an adequate number of cases to reliably test the second hypothesis. We believe that evolved mechanisms regulating social interactions explain this pattern; the goals of avoiding social conflict and unwanted sexual attention continue to be important in modern environments.