Human Settlement Patterns Research Articles

Overview and progress of Chinese geographical human settlement research

Increasing Chinese urbanization and industrialization has prompted greater attention to the study of human settlement and the human-land relationship in the fields of geography, architecture, and urban planning. We used bibliometric methods and statistical software to review 180 articles on human settlement in 16 Chinese geographical journals. We found that Chinese geographical human settlement research is characterized by the following: (1) Most research focuses on human settlement extension, valuation indicators, models for urban and rural settlements, theoretical exploration and the planning practices of single-factor, human settlement and complex, geographical livability in macro-scale, urban settlement differentiation and ideal patterns in medium scale, the comprehensive evaluation of settlement environment, and the planning of community units in micro-scale, community settlements; socio-cultural investigation and warnings about advancing human settlement. (2) No progress has been made in synthesizing and integrating method systems. PSR models and DPSIR models are used for targeting mechanisms, while the standard settlement evaluation system was composed of physical & economic indicators by questionnaire surveys. On the other hand, spatial clustering based on GIS has been a frequent focus in recent years. Pioneering research on human settlement and theoretical systems within the context of China’s urbanization and industrialization will provide guidance on the sustainability of Chinese cities and regions. The following five aspects require greater attention: (1) Natural suitability research on human settlement, and a survey of human settlement demands to reflect the range of different demands concerning ecologically suitable settlements in urban environments, the corresponding valuation indicators, systems, and evolution, and the impact of the residents’ socio-economic attributes. (2) Spatial-temporal evaluation and sustainability research on urban and rural human settlement at various scales, focusing on evolution and spatial differentiation at various scales such as city clusters and comparisons between cities, within the cities and communities. (3) Development of theory and technology for human settlement evolution research, including detection technology and methods, data mining measures, and forecasting and emulation of regional and urban human settlement evolution processes, mechanisms and patterns. (4) Research on the control of human settlement that focuses on optimization, patterns, and policies for effective management and development. (5) Estimating the human settlement system service value and establishing suitable human settlement systems, including social, economic, cultural and ecological service values.

The Impact of Internal Migration on Population Redistribution: an International Comparison

AbstractWe know that internal migration shapes human settlement patterns, but few attempts have been made to measure systematically the extent of population redistribution or make comparisons between countries. Robust comparisons are hampered by limited data access, different space‐time frameworks, and inadequate summary statistics. We use new analysis software (IMAGE Studio) to assess the effects of differences in the number and configuration of geographic zones and implement new measures to make comparisons across a large sample of countries, representing 80% of global population. We construct a new Index of Net Migration Impact to measure system‐wide population redistribution and examine the relative contributions of migration intensity and effectiveness to cross‐national variations. We compare spatial patterns using the slope of a regression between migration and population density across zones in each country to indicate the direction and pace of population concentration. We report correlations between measures of population redistribution and national development and propose a general theoretical model suggesting how internal migration redistributes population across settlement systems during the development process. Copyright © 2016 The Authors Population, Space and Place Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

How good is the map? A multi-scale cross-comparison framework for global settlement layers: Evidence from Central Europe

Abstract Mapping of settlement areas from space is entering a new era. With the recently developed Global Urban Footprint (based on radar data from TanDEM-X) and the Global Human Settlement Layer (based on optical data), two new initiatives that promise to map complex settlement patterns at global scales and unprecedented spatial resolutions are about to enter the scientific and map user community. However, comparative studies on these layers' strengths and weaknesses, especially in terms of their potential added value with regard to existing lower resolution maps, as well as their assessed accuracy are still absent. In this regard, we introduce a multi-scale cross-comparison framework that uses the best existing urban maps as a benchmark. To paint a complete picture, we simultaneously address several components of map accuracy including relative inter-map agreement, absolute accuracies and pattern-based classification differences. This framework is applied to present regionally representative results from two Central European test sites. In this, we find that the new base maps bring decisive advancements in preserving the small-scale complexity of global human settlement patterns beyond urban core areas. Relative inter-map comparison exposes low density settlement regions traditionally under-represented by lower resolution maps that are now recognized. Absolute metrics such as the Kappa coefficient of agreement ( K ) show that accuracies of the new high resolution layers ( K ¯ = 0.56–0.58) nearly double those of existing products. Beyond, they feature substantial consistency between urban ( K ¯ = 0.46–0.50) and rural landscapes ( K ¯ = 0.41–0.45). Results from pattern-based exploration further reveal significant correlation of accuracies with physical pattern variations such as settlement density and mark a clear shift of accuracies from large to medium and small patch sizes. This differentiated view on classification accuracies shows that the new generation of urban maps constitutes a significantly enhanced spatial representation of large-scale settlement patterns.

Human-environment interactions within the West Liao River Basin in Northeastern China during the Holocene Optimum

Abstract Cultural studies of Neolithic China have focused on the social aspects and the human–environment interactions associated with those cultures. However, the uneven spatial distribution of Neolithic sites in Northeastern China has not yet been explored. This study traces the relationship between human settlement patterns and the agro-ecological environment during the Holocene Optimum, based on the spatial distribution of 4184 Neolithic sites, together with optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating and pollen analysis of five profiles and 22 plant flotation samples from 10 of the archaeological sites in the West Liao River Basin, the hub of Neolithic Cultures in Northeastern China. The overwhelming majority (∼96.7%) of the Neolithic sites are located south of 43o30′N latitude in the West Liao River Basin on the southern fringe of the Horqin Dunefield. The dunefield, which has been commonly hypothesized as vegetated during the Holocene Optimum, was a typical steppe at that time and not suitable for growing millet, the primary staple crop of Neolithic Cultures. Our results and other archaeological site records reveal that the 43°30′N latitude was a remarkable barrier for the dispersal of human settlements in Northeastern China during the Neolithic Age. The barrier was probably formed by the low frost tolerance of millet and the temperature gradient associated with the latitude, making large-scale agricultural production impossible in the regions north of this latitude at the time. Our findings provide evidence for the natural northern limit of Neolithic Cultures in Northeastern China during the Holocene Optimum.

Establishing a database of Canadian feline mitotypes for forensic use

Hair shed by pet animals is often found and collected as evidence from crime scenes. Due to limitations such as small amount and low quality, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is often the only type of DNA that can be used for linking the hair to a potential contributor. mtDNA has lower discriminatory power than nuclear DNA because multiple, unrelated individuals within a population can have the same mtDNA sequence, or mitotype. Therefore, to determine the evidentiary value of a match between crime scene evidence and a suspected contributor, the frequency of the mitotype must be known within the regional population. While mitotype frequencies have been determined for the United States’ cat population, the frequencies are unknown for the Canadian cat population. Given the countries’ close proximity and similar human settlement patterns, these populations may be homogenous, meaning a single, regional database may be used for estimating cat population mitotype frequencies. Here we determined the mitotype frequencies of the Canadian cat population and compared them to the United States’ cat population. The two cat populations are statistically homogenous, however mitotype B6 was found in high frequency in Canada and extremely low frequency in the United States, meaning a single database would not be appropriate for North America. Furthermore, this work calls attention to these local spikes in frequency of otherwise rare mitotypes, instances of which exist around the world and have the potential to misrepresent the evidentiary value of matches compared to a regional database.

Holocene Avulsions of the Euphrates River in the Najaf Area of Western Mesopotamia: Impacts on Human Settlement Patterns

We present a study that reconstructs the ancient courses of the Euphrates in part of the Mesopotamian floodplain west and southwest of the ancient site of Babylon. The focus is on tracing paleochannel courses, determining when these paleochannels were active, and understanding the patterns of avulsion. The research was carried out using a combination of geological, geomorphological, remote sensing, historical, and archaeological approaches. Fieldwork included “ground truthing” of the remote sensing work, manually drilling boreholes (up to 7 m in depth), sedimentary and geomorphological documentation and sample collection for radiocarbon dating. As a result, five main courses of the Euphrates in five different periods have been mapped in this area, including four previously unidentified and/or unlocated migrations that linked the different periods. The main courses are the Purattum Course (before 3100–1000 BC), the Arahtum Course (1000–125 BC), the Sura Course (125 BC to AD 1258), the Hilla Course (13th to 19th century AD), and the Hindiya Course (19th to 20th century AD). There has been an overall migration of the main channel from east to west across the study area over time. The location of avulsion nodes changed along the length of the river, mainly downstream over time, but with a cluster of avulsion events near Babylon and a notable man‐made interference in the 20th century at the Hindiya Barrage.

Landscape Evolution and Human Settlement Patterns on Ofu Island, Manu’a Group, American Samoa

This study summarizes the impacts of geomorphological processes on human settlement strategies on the island of Ofu in the Samoan Archipelago from island colonization to permanent settlement in the interior uplands (c. 2700–900 b.p. ). Previous archaeological research on Ofu has documented a dynamic coastal landscape at one location, To’aga, on the southern coast. Using a new geoarchaeological data set, our study extends this assessment to a site on the western coast of the island. We conclude that although the sequence of coastal evolution is broadly consistent between the two areas there are also differences indicating that island-wide coastal evolution did not progress everywhere at the same rate. Using this data set, we record changes in human settlement patterns temporally correlated with coastal progradation—perhaps related to continued drawdown from the mid-Holocene sea-level highstand—and sediment aggradation. We suggest that coastal landscape change on Ofu may have been one factor in the expansion of the terrestrial component of the human subsistence base and the more intensive use of the interior uplands of the island. The timing of this settlement change was slightly earlier than elsewhere in the region, demonstrating the variability of human response to regional-scale environmental changes.

Late Holocene Stalagmite and Tufa Climate Records for Wonderwerk Cave: Relationships Between Archaeology and Climate in Southern Africa

Horizontal cores from a large stalagmite and two tufa deposits in the entrance to Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa, dated by radiocarbon methods, have provided climate proxy data on late Holocene environments near the cave. The δ18O and δ13C time series from stalagmite Core WW1–3 and tufa Core WW3 correlate well with isotope records for other sites in the summer rainfall zone of southern Africa and suggest that late Holocene warm periods in the Northern Hemisphere, including the Medieval Warm period, Roman Warm period, and Minoan Warm period, were times of increased moisture in this rainfall zone. In contrast, late Holocene cold intervals in the Northern Hemisphere, including the Dark Ages Cold period and Sub-Atlantic Cold period, were times of drier climate in the summer rainfall zone. Comparison of the Wonderwerk records with information on human settlement patterns, agricultural expansion or decline, and population growth or decline, shows that growth occurred preferentially during wetter climate periods and declines, including the abandonment of the important town of Mupungubwe in the Shashe-Limpopo area of northeast South Africa and the fall of Great Zimbabwe, which occurred during periods of low precipitation.

A Test of Ideal Free Distribution Predictions Using Targeted Survey and Excavation on California’s Northern Channel Islands

Using targeted survey, excavation, and radiocarbon dating, we assess the extent to which human settlement patterns on California’s northern Channel Islands fit predictions arising from the ideal free distribution (IFD): (1) people first established and expanded permanent settlements in the regions ranked high for environmental resource suitability; (2) as population grew, they settled in progressively lower ranked habitats; and (3) changes in the archaeological record associated with high population levels such as increases in faunal diversity and evenness in high-ranked habitats are coincident with the expansion to other areas. On Santa Rosa Island, the early permanent settlements were located in both high- and middle-ranked locations, with the most extensive settlement at the highest ranked locations and only isolated sites elsewhere. Settlement at a low-ranked habitat was confined to the late Holocene (after 3600 cal BP). Drought influenced the relative rank of different locations, which is an example of climate adding a temporal dimension to the model that episodically stimulated population movement and habitat abandonment. Because the IFD includes a wide range of cultural and environmental variables, it has the potential to be a central model for guiding archaeological analysis and targeted field research.

Measures proposed for planetary defence: Obstacles in existing international law and implications for space arms control

Whereas the Earth is showered by extraterrestrial matters on a constant basis, most of them cannot survive the very high heat produced in their entry into the atmosphere to make a terrestrial impact. Impacts that are capable of inflicting terrestrial casualties and damages are even rarer. However, their consequences can be high, and even so nowadays with the change of human settlement patterns on the Earth. With the development of space science and technology, human beings are now capable of predicting possible impacts with some accuracy, and even minimizing the chance of actual collision. For the later purpose, many proposals have been put forward, which either employ weapons readily found on the Earth, or envisage newly developed technologies that could nevertheless be used for military purposes. This short note applies existent international law to these measures, and attempts to shed some light on their implications for ongoing discussions of space arms control.

A continental narrative: Human settlement patterns and Australian climate change over the last 35,000 years

Drawing on the recent synthesis of Australian palaeoclimate by the OZ-INTIMATE group (Reeves et al., 2013a), we consider the effects of climate systems on past human settlement patterns and inferred demography. We use 5044 radiocarbon dates from ∼1750 archaeological sites to develop regional time-series curves for different regions defined in the OZ-INTIMATE compilation as the temperate, tropics, interior and Southern Ocean sectors to explore human–climate relationships in Australia over the last 35,000 years. Correlations undertaken with improved palaeoclimatic data and archaeological records indicate that the regional time-series curves are robust, and can be used as a proxy for human behaviour. However, interrogation of the datasets is essential with artificial peaks and taphonomic over-correction being critical considerations. The time-series curves are interpreted as reflecting population growth, stasis and even decline in phase with terminal Pleistocene/early Holocene climatic fluctuations. This coupling, however, decreases during the last 5000 years, most likely due to increased population levels, greater territoriality, technological solutions to stress, and social and ideational innovation. Curves from all sectors show exponential population growth over the last 5000 years. We identify future research priorities, highlighting the paucity of archaeological records across several parts of Australia (<1 dated site/4,000 km2), especially around the fringes of the arid zone, and the need for improved taphonomic correction techniques. Finally, we discuss how these time-series curves represent a first-order framework, not dissimilar to global climate models, which researchers can continue to test and refine with local, regional and continental records.

Central place foraging and shellfish processing on California’s Northern Channel Islands

We use a central place forager model for shellfish processing to understand Middle Holocene (7550–3600calBP) human settlement patterns on California’s Northern Channel Islands. This period was associated with increasing sedentism and special purpose sites. We examine the processing and transport costs of two high-ranked shellfish species collected during the Middle Holocene, red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) and California mussel (Mytilus californianus), and how these costs influence archaeological assemblages at coastal and interior settlements. Experimental data and the biology of these species suggest that red abalones are less likely than mussels to be transported long distances (∼2km) without field processing. Consistent with these expectations, coastal red abalone midden sites (CA-SRI-109 and -338) are dominated by large red abalone shells and California mussels are most abundant at contemporaneous inland sites (e.g., CA-SRI-50). Large coastal settlement sites (CA-SRI-5, -19, -116, and -821) had the highest overall shellfish diversity. A stable oxygen isotope study suggests that special purpose sites were occupied seasonally and large coastal settlements were more likely to be inhabited year-round. Our study suggests that transportation and processing costs of food resources were important variables in the development of early hunter–gatherer settlement patterns.

The Biogeographic Roots of World Inequality: Animals, Disease, and Human Settlement Patterns in Africa and the Americas Before 1492

Building on recent insights from archeology, genetics, and linguistics I challenge Jared Diamond’s grand narrative of the biogeographic roots of world inequality. I argue that this narrative pays insufficient attention to contrasting patterns of human settlement in Africa and the Americas. I develop alternative hypotheses concerning the role of domesticated animals in shaping human disease environments and processes of state formation prior to the Columbian exchange. My overarching objective is to enhance the debate on the deep roots of world inequality by tackling Eurocentric conceptions of world development and exploring the potential of new comparative and multi-disciplinary research perspectives.

Grizzly bear connectivity mapping in the Canada–United States trans‐border region

ABSTRACTFragmentation is a growing threat to wildlife worldwide and managers need solutions to reverse its impacts on species' populations. Populations of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos), often considered an umbrella and focal species for large mammal conservation, are fragmented by human settlement and major highways in the trans‐border region of southern British Columbia, northern Montana, Idaho, and northeastern Washington. To improve prospects for bear movement among 5 small fragmented grizzly bear subpopulations, we asked 2 inter‐related questions: Are there preferred linkage habitats for grizzly bears across settled valleys with major highways in the fragmented trans‐border region, and if so, could we predict them using a combination of resource selection functions and human settlement patterns? We estimated a resource selection function (RSF) to identify high quality backcountry core habitat and to predict front‐country linkage areas using global positioning system (GPS) telemetry locations representing an average of 12 relocations per day from 27 grizzly bears (13F, 14M). We used RSF models and data on human presence (building density) to inform cost surfaces for connectivity network analyses identifying linkage areas based on least‐cost path, corridor, and circuit theory methods. We identified 60 trans‐border (Canada–USA) linkage areas across all major highways and settlement zones in the Purcell, Selkirk, and Cabinet Mountains encompassing 24% of total highway length. We tested the correspondence of the core and linkage areas predicted from models with grizzly bear use based on bear GPS telemetry locations and movement data. Highway crossings were relatively rare; however, 88% of 122 crossings from 13 of our bears were within predicted linkage areas (mean = 8.3 crossings/bear, SE = 2.8, range 1–31, 3 bears with 1 crossing) indicating bears use linkage habitat that could be predicted with an RSF. Long‐term persistence of small fragmented grizzly bear populations will require management of connectivity with larger populations. Linkage areas identified here could inform such efforts. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.

Internal Migration and Development: Comparing Migration Intensities Around the World

Migration is the principal demographic process shaping patterns of human settlement, and it serves an essential role in human development. While progress has been made in measuring international migration, internal migration statistics are as yet poorly developed in many countries. This article draws on a repository of data established under the IMAGE (Internal Migration Around the GlobE) project to address this deficit by constructing the first comprehensive league table of internal migration intensities for countries around the world. We review previous work, outline the major impediments to making reliable comparisons, and set out a methodology that combines a novel estimation procedure with a flexible spatial aggregation facility. We present the results in the form of league tables of aggregate crude migration intensities that capture all changes of address over one‐year or five‐year intervals for 96 countries, representing four‐fifths of the global population. Explanation for the observed differences has been sought, inter alia, in historical, structural, cultural, and economic forces. We examine the links between development and migration intensity through simple correlations using a range of demographic, economic, and social variables. Results reveal clear associations between internal migration intensities and selected indicators of national development.

Carbonate sedimentation on Pacific coral reefs

The contributions in this special issue represent recent advances in carbonate sediment research in and around the coral reefs of the Pacific regions of Japan, New Caledonia, and Tahiti. The issue contains five articles covering a range of subjects including fundamental research on the use corals and large-sized benthic foraminifers in paleoenvironmental reconstructions, facies analyses of modern off-reef sediments, and isotopic analyses of tricanid shells. The issue opens with a classical sedimentary facies description by Yamano et al. (2015), who examine surface carbonate sediments on the outer shelf and slope around New Caledonia. Facies showed significant variations in composition, from benthos- to plankton-dominated, according to water depth, currents, and local seafloor geomorphology. Their results contribute baseline data for examinations of carbonate sedimentary facies in tropical to subtropical environments. Following the description of general facies patterns, the issue contains further investigations on the use of specific organisms (including corals and benthic foraminifers) in reconstructions of facies and paleoenvironments. Humblet et al. (2015) present identification keys for four widespread genera of fossil corals (Acropora, Isopora, Montipora, and Porites) that are commonly recovered from outcrops and drilled cores. They argue that fossil corals should generally be identified from sectioned material, as coral surfaces are usually obscured by encrusters or sediments, and coral specimens are often broken or eroded. Further work extending this type of investigation to all coral genera would greatly contribute to a better understanding of coral reef development and paleoenvironmental assessments. Hongo and Wirrmann (2015) examine cores from Pleistocene and Holocene barrier reefs in New Caledonia and identify several key species for reef formation and maintenance. They emphasize the need for further research on the restoration and conservation of key species, as some of these species are presently in decline. Fujita and Omori (2015) examine large-sized benthic foraminifers from Recent surface sediments and Pleistocene subsurface deposits obtained during Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) Expedition 310, off Tahiti. By referring to modern foraminifer assemblages, they show that the Pleistocene sequence off Tahiti was deposited in a fore-reef slope environment. As with corals, the authors propose that an examination of modern assemblages of foraminifers would contribute to a better understanding of facies formation and improved paleoenvironmental reconstructions. In addition to their role in sedimentary facies analysis, carbonate skeletons and shells are reliable recorders of paleoenvironments at high temporal resolutions. Asami et al. (2015) present seasonally resolved records of carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions (δ18O) in the fossil shells of giant clams recovered from archeological sites in Okinawa, Japan. Results demonstrate that the annual mean seawater temperature and salinity at Okinawa were approximately 1–3°C higher and 1–2 lower, respectively, at 4000 yr cal. BP and 1900–1700 yr cal. BP than at present; such data provide insights into patterns of human settlement and modes of life in the past. An understanding of facies formation and the reconstruction of paleoenvironments both require process-based analyses. In addition to the five articles mentioned above, Fujita et al. (2015), whose work is to be included in an extended virtual special issue on this topic, examine processes of carbonate sedimentation in seagrass beds in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan. Based on sedimentation rates estimated from coring and sediment influx rates estimated from sediment traps, they identified a sediment-trapping role of seagrass, and characterized the seagrass beds in the Ryukyu Islands as having high sediment fluxes and extremely low sedimentation rates. Collectively, the special issue presents diverse and insightful analyses of Pacific coral reefs. We thank the authors and reviewers who contributed to this issue. Finally, we dedicate this special issue to the memory of our friend and colleague Guy Cabioch (Fig. 1), who sadly passed away in October 2011. All of the senior or corresponding authors, as well as the guest editors, of this special issue collaborated with him. He led many research cruises and drilling programs, and some of the outcomes of his collaborations appear in this special issue. We sincerely thank Guy and pray from the bottom of our hearts that his soul may rest in peace. Guy Cabioch in a research cruise (previous page) and in the field (this page). The photos are provided by Jean-Michel Boré and Denis Wirrmann, respectively.

Sea-level rise and sub-county population projections in coastal Georgia

It is increasingly apparent that stressors associated with anthropocentric climate change are likely to have dramatic effects on future human settlement patterns. Although sea-level rise is one of the best understood implications of climate change, geographically precise estimation of potential population displacement due to tidewater inundation has proven remarkably problematic. At least within the USA, these problems partially stem from methodological limitations of population projection methodology at sub-county scales. Using a case study of coastal Georgia, USA, this paper develops and demonstrates a new housing unit-based population projection method that is applied at the sub-county scale of Census Block Groups. These projections are then overlaid with spatiotemporally explicit assessments of future sea-level rise inundation provided through the Sea Level Affecting Marsh Model (SLAMM). We find that between 62,000 and 159,000 people are at risk of between 1 and 2 m of sea-level rise by 2100 in coastal Georgia.

Identifikasi Ketersediaan dan Kualitas Sarana Prasarana Lingkungan di Urban Fringe Area Kelurahan Pudakpayung

&lt;p class="Abstract"&gt;Kelurahan Pudakpayung adalah kelurahan paling selatan di Kecamatan Banyumanik Kota Semarang. Daerah ini termasuk sebagai daerah pinggiran kota yang pertambahan jumlah penduduk dan pertambahan luas lahan permukimannya cukup tinggi. Tetapi tidak didukung dengan sarana prasarana lingkungan yang baik. Untuk itu perlu dilakukannya penelitian untuk melihat ketersediaan dan kualitas sarana prasarana lingkungan yang ada di daerah pinggiran kota ini. Sehingga dapat memberikan sebuah rekomendasi terkait ketersediaan dan kualitas sarana prasarana lingkungan khususnya di daerah pinggiran kota. Penelitian ini akan mengidentifikasi perubahan pola lahan permukiman dan kemudian mengidentifikasi ketersediaan, kualitas, dan penyebaran sarana prasarana lingkungan permukiman. Metode penelitian yang digunakan pada penelitian ini yaitu metode deskriptif kuantitatif. Analisis yang digunakan yaitu analisis deskriptif kuantitatif dengan ketentuan SNI 03-1733-2004, skoring dengan skala Likert, dan pemetaan spasial. Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan presentase perubahan pola lahan terbangun serta ketersedian, kualitas, dan persebaran dari setiap sarana prasarana lingkungan.&lt;/p&gt;

Initial Study on Triaxiality of Human Settlements—In the Case of 10 Districts (Counties) of Dalian

For a long time, the traditional pattern of urban-rural human settlements has been shaped in reference to the existence of the urban-rural dual structure. In this paper, we put forward the notion of triaxiality of human settlements, and used the standards conversion entropy weight method to measure and calculate degrees of livability of human settlements, so as to prove the existence of triaxiality of human settlements within the same unit at the micro-scale level, and conduct an empirical study on the spatial-temporal evolution, system attributes and formation mechanisms of the triaxiality of human settlements in 10 districts (counties) of Dalian (Years 2002–2011). Results showed that: (1) Spatial evolution of human settlements presents triaxiality. Administrative divisions do not play a full and predominant role in the unit division of human settlements. The number of distribution districts (counties) within different units of human settlements tends to be balanced, there is spatial variation of tertiary units in the human settlements of Dalian, and the transition area of human settlements occupies the leading position in the unit division of human settlements; (2) Human settlements also exhibit triaxiality at different development stages during the period of evolution. The fluctuation changes of degrees of livability of the human settlements of Dalian within the past 10 years have been relatively stable, with a trend of small scale decline and obvious manifestations of stage differences; (3) The system attributive characters of human settlements presents triaxiality. There also exists differentiations of system and area in human settlements within the same unit; (4) Industrialization and urbanization have led to the collapse of part of the urban-rural dual structure, while the differentiation of ternary structure of the economic and social structure, and living environment and life style leads to the triaxiality of human settlements.

Urban Metabolism: A review of recent literature on the subject

Urban areas are the primary habitat for a majority of the global population. The development of cities not only entails a fundamental change in human settlement patterns but also a dramatic transformation of the physical environment. Thus, urban areas and their development are at the centre of all discussions on sustainability and/or sustainable development. This review essay introduces the notion of Urban Metabolism (UM), a term that provides a conceptual framework to study how a city functions, and hence, a way to address the sustainability issue of a city. Due to the significance and scope of the subject, the notion of UM is interpreted and thus approached differently across diverse disciplines from both the natural and social science fields. In order to comprehend the commonalities and controversies between them, the present review also briefly introduces the historical roots of the term. This review reveals the increasing significance of a rich and rapidly evolving field of research on the metabolism of urban areas.