Mature Human Milk Research Articles

Evaluation of Sialic Acid in Infant Feeding: Contents and Bioavailability.

Sialic acid (Sia) contents and bioaccessibility (BA) in human milk (HM) and infant formulas (IFs) were determined, and Sia intakes by infants between 0 and 6 months of age were evaluated. Total Sia contents in HM decreased during lactation from 136.14 to 24.47 mg/100 mL. The total Sia contents in IFs (13.15-25.78 mg/100 mL) were lower than in HM and were not related to the addition of ingredients acting as sources of Sia in their formulation. The Sia intakes derived from IF consumption were lower than in HM, and only one IF reached the intakes provided by HM from the age of 2 months. Despite the lower total Sia content in IFs, the BA of Sia in IFs (88.08-92.96%) was significantly greater than in mature HM (72.51%) and similar to that found in colostrum (96.43%). However, the Sia contents in the available soluble fraction of IFs did not reach those provided by HM.

Lactoferrin Levels in Human Milk after Preterm and Term Delivery.

Background Lactoferrin (LF) is a highly represented, functional glycoprotein in human milk, exerting a wide range of anti-infective, immunomodulatory, and prebiotic actions in the neonate. Limited data are available assessing the concentrations and levels of LF in maternal milk over time during lactation in mothers who delivered infants at different GAs. Our aim with the present study was to determine the levels of LF in human milk from mothers of preterm and term infants and to evaluate the variations at a different time from delivery, in colostrum and mature milk. Methods Mothers of preterm and term infants from the Neonatology Unit in Foggia, Italy, were approached and enrolled in this study. From each mother, milk samples were collected within the first 3 days after birth (group A, 0-72 hours), between the 5th and 7th day after delivery (group B, 120-168 hours), and after the 10th day (group C, > 240 hours). All milk samples were divided into five groups, according to the GA of the infants: 24 to 27.6 weeks of GA (I), 28 to 31.6 weeks of GA (II), 32 to 34.6 weeks of GA (III), 35 to 37.6 weeks of GA (IV), and > 38 weeks of GA (V). Milk samples were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis to determine the content of LF. Results A total of 84 milk samples were collected from 28 mothers. We found that infant's GA, as well as the time of sampling, affected the levels of LF in milk. On one hand, LF showed higher content in human milk from group I (GA: 24-27.6 weeks) compared with the other groups (p < 0.01), and the levels of LF in colostrum were significantly correlated with GA (r = -0.31; p < 0.05). On the other hand, the LF content of milk had a significant decreasing trend over time. Overall, the highest values of LF were detected in preterm infants' maternal milk with a baby birth weight, lower than 1,400 g. Approximately 350 µg/mL was identified as the mean, physiological LF content in human mature milk in our population. Conclusions Levels of LF in human milk vary significantly over time during lactation and according to GA. This variability in the LF content of human milk may reflect the different needs of different infants during the early days and weeks of life. These data might help to inform models to design tailored supplementation strategies of LF in the nurseries and after home discharge.

Evaluation of fatty acid composition in commercial infant formulas on the Chinese market: A comparative study based on fat source and stage

The fatty acid compositions of 180 commercial infant, follow-on and growing-up formulas with different fat sources (plant-oil, cows' milk, goats' milk) on the Chinese market were analysed and compared with mature human milk. Fatty acid composition in formulas was dependent on fat source. The plant-oil formulas were more similar to mature human milk, while the cows' milk and goats' milk formulas contained higher levels of saturated (C4:0–C10:0) and lower levels of oleic acid and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids than those of mature human milk. There was little difference among formulas for the three stages except for the goats' milk formulas. The major fatty acids of formulas were similar to those of mature human milk, while levels of some micro-fatty acids in formulas, such as nervonic acid and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, were significantly lower than in mature human milk.

Interleukin-8 and Its Receptors in Human Milk from Mothers of Full-Term and Premature Infants.

In addition to its nutritional benefits, human milk also has bioactive elements. Limited immunological functions of newborns are supported and altered by the immunological elements of mother milk. Chemokines are of importance among these immune factors. Interleukin-8 (IL-8) has been demonstrated in mother's milk, and its receptors, CXC chemokine receptors (CXCR)-1 and CXCR-2, were detected on cells, responsible for immunological reactions and mammary glandular cells. The soluble forms of these receptors are yet to be described in human milk. In this study, it was aimed to assess the IL-8 levels and the concentrations of its receptors in colostrum and mature mother's milk in regard to preterm and term delivery. The results of this study indicated a decline in IL-8 levels with the lactation stage, but no difference was observed between term and preterm mother's milk. Regarding the CXCR-1 and CXCR-2, the concentrations of these receptors were similar in both colostrum and mature milk. Furthermore, there was not any significant difference between term and preterm mother's milk. In conclusion, this is the first study to investigate the concentrations of CXCR-1 and CXCR-2 with the levels of IL-8 in colostrum and mature human milk of term and preterm newborns. The alterations in IL-8 levels were similar in some of the studies reported. CXCR-1 and CXCR-2 levels did not demonstrate any significant difference. Further studies are required to investigate the soluble forms of these receptors and their relation to IL-8 with larger cohort.

Isolation and Identification of Lactic Acid Bacteria from Human Milk with Potential Probiotic Role

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the field of research into the characterization of new probiotics with potential application to the health and disease prevention. Therefore, the aim of this study is to isolate and identify bacteria in human colostrum and mature milk to analyze its possible probiotic potential. We isolated and identified ten strains of bacteria in human mature milk, by molecular biology; from which, five of these strains were selected to evaluate their ability to survive in vitro simulated conditions of gastrointestinal stress, the antimicrobial effect, adhesion capacity and resistance to different pHs and temperatures. The results showed that three of the five selected strains, identified as Lactobacillus fermentum JCM 3, TW56 Leuconostoc mesenteroides and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, were resistant to digestive enzymes, showed resistance to low pH values (2 and 3) having adhesion capacity and viability at temperatures of 40 °C. Therefore, these bacteria may could be considered as potential probiotics for the pharmaceutical and food industry.

Gastrointestinal Tolerance of Formula Supplemented with Oligosaccharides

ObjectiveHuman milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are the third largest solid component in mature human milk. The objective of this study was to evaluate gastrointestinal tolerance of infants fed infant formula supplemented with short‐chain fructooligosaccharides (scFOS) and 2‐fucosyllactose (2′FL).MethodsWe conducted a prospective, randomized, multi‐center, double‐blinded, controlled 3‐arm tolerance study in full term, singleton infants (birth weight ≥ 2490g) enrolled between 0 and 8 days of age. At enrollment, formula‐fed infants were randomized to one of two experimental milk‐based infant formulas with a caloric density of 643 kcal/L. Experimental Formula 1 (EF1) did not contain oligosaccharides (n=42) and Experimental Formula 2 (EF2) contained 2g/L scFOS and 0.2g/L 2′FL (n=46). The 2 formula groups were compared with a human milk‐fed (HM) reference group (n=43). Infants were exclusively fed formula or human milk from enrollment until 35 days of age. Data related to intake, stool patterns, anthropometrics and parental questionnaires were collected. The primary outcome was average mean rank stool consistency (MRSC) from Study Day 1 to Visit 3. MRSC was calculated from stool records (1=watery, 2=loose/mushy, 3=soft, 4=formed, 5=hard).ResultsThirty‐six (86%) subjects in the EF1 group, 41 (89%) in the EF2 group and 42 (98%) in the HM group completed the study. There were no differences among groups for gender, ethnicity, race, gestational age, birth weight or age at enrollment. Reported results are from the protocol evaluable analysis. From Study Day 1 to Visit 3, there were no differences in MRSC among the three feeding groups. MRSC was 2.37 ± 0.10, 2.15 ± 0.10 and 2.06 ± 0.08 for the EF1, EF2 and HM groups respectively. There were also no differences among groups for predominant stool consistency from Study Day 1 to Visit 3. The average number of stools per day for the HM group was significantly greater than EF1 (p&lt;0.0001) and EF2 (p&lt;0.0001) from Study Day 1 to Visit 3. At Visit 3, there were no differences between groups for average volume of study formula intake, number of study formula feedings per day, anthropometric data or percent feedings with spit‐up/vomit.ConclusionAn experimental formula containing 2′FL and scFOS was well tolerated in young infants as evidenced by stool consistency, formula intake, anthropometric data and percent feedings with spit‐up/vomit similar to that of infants fed formula without oligosaccharides or HM.Support or Funding InformationThis study was funded by Abbott Nutrition, Abbott Laboratories, Columbus, OH.

Quantitative proteomic analysis of milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) proteins in human and bovine colostrum and mature milk samples through iTRAQ labeling.

Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) proteins have many functions. To explore the different proteomics of human and bovine MFGM, MFGM proteins were separated from human and bovine colostrum and mature milk, and analyzed by the iTRAQ proteomic approach. A total of 411 proteins were recognized and quantified. Among these, 232 kinds of differentially expressed proteins were identified. These differentially expressed proteins were analyzed based on multivariate analysis, gene ontology (GO) annotation and KEGG pathway. Biological processes involved were response to stimulus, localization, establishment of localization, and the immune system process. Cellular components engaged were the extracellular space, extracellular region parts, cell fractions, and vesicles. Molecular functions touched upon were protein binding, nucleotide binding, and enzyme inhibitor activity. The KEGG pathway analysis showed several pathways, including regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, focal adhesion, neurotrophin signaling pathway, leukocyte transendothelial migration, tight junction, complement and coagulation cascades, vascular endothelial growth factor signaling pathway, and adherens junction. These results enhance our understanding of different proteomes of human and bovine MFGM across different lactation phases, which could provide important information and potential directions for the infant milk powder and functional food industries.

A nine-country study of the protein content and amino acid composition of mature human milk

BackgroundNumerous studies have evaluated protein and amino acid levels in human milk. However, research in this area has been limited by small sample sizes and study populations with little ethnic or racial diversity.ObjectiveEvaluate the protein and amino acid composition of mature (≥30 days) human milk samples collected from a large, multinational study using highly standardized methods for sample collection, storage, and analysis.DesignUsing a single, centralized laboratory, human milk samples from 220 women (30–188 days postpartum) from nine countries were analyzed for amino acid composition using Waters AccQ-Tag high-performance liquid chromatography and total nitrogen content using the LECO FP-528 nitrogen analyzer. Total protein was calculated as total nitrogen×6.25. True protein, which includes protein, free amino acids, and peptides, was calculated from the total amino acids.ResultsMean total protein from individual countries (standard deviation [SD]) ranged from 1,133 (125.5) to 1,366 (341.4) mg/dL; the mean across all countries (SD) was 1,192 (200.9) mg/dL. Total protein, true protein, and amino acid composition were not significantly different across countries except Chile, which had higher total and true protein. Amino acid profiles (percent of total amino acids) did not differ across countries. Total and true protein concentrations and 16 of 18 amino acid concentrations declined with the stage of lactation.ConclusionsTotal protein, true protein, and individual amino acid concentrations in human milk steadily decline from 30 to 151 days of lactation, and are significantly higher in the second month of lactation compared with the following 4 months. There is a high level of consistency in the protein content and amino acid composition of human milk across geographic locations. The size and diversity of the study population and highly standardized procedures for the collection, storage, and analysis of human milk support the validity and broad application of these findings.

DETERMINATION OF CHOLESTEROL IN HUMAN MILK: AN ALTERNATIVE TO CHROMATOGRAPHIC METHODS.

human milk (HM) is considered the best option for feeding healthy infants. Cholesterol (CHOL) is important for proper development of the nervous system, and for hormone and vitamin synthesis in growing infants. Breastfeeding and dietary CHOL intake during infancy have been suggested to affect blood lipid levels and the risk of cardiovascular disease in adulthood. Gas chromatography is the technique most widely used to determine CHOL in HM. Chromatographic methods are specific for the determination of CHOL and other sterols present in HM, but are extremely time consuming, and the costs and equipment requirements mean that they are not accessible to all laboratories. the present study describes the optimization and validation of an enzymatic-spectrophotometric method for CHOL determination in mature HM. determination of CHOL involves fat extraction with chloroform:methanol, hot saponification and extraction of the unsaponifiable fraction with diethyl ether. CHOL was determined by an enzymatic method in which the concentration of the lutidine dye formed is stoichiometric to the amount of CHOL, and is measured by the increase in light absorbance at 405 nm. human milk fat (mg/mL) (27.5 ± 1.3) and CHOL (0.113 ± 0.004) in analyzed HM were within the ranges reported by others authors. Analytical parameters of the proposed method were assessed: The precision values (%) (expressed as the relative standard deviation (RSD)) were: 3.5 and 6.7 for intra- and inter-day, respectively. Accuracy, estimated by recovery assays, was 110 ± 1.6%. the validated enzymatic-spectrophotometric method for determining CHOL in HM constitutes an alternative for fast and simple analysis of CHOL with equipment requirements accessible to any laboratory.

Total antioxidant status of human colostrum, transitory milk and mature milk in healthy postpartum women from coastal Croatia

Total antioxidant status of human colostrum, transitory milk and mature milk in healthy postpartum women from coastal Croatia

Infection‐Specific Responses of Breastmilk Leukocytes

Breastmilk leukocytes comprise a small population of mature human milk when both the mother and infant are healthy, providing active immunity and immunocompetence in the infant and protecting the mammary gland from infection. In this study, we examined leukocyte‐subset responses to different infections of the breastfeeding dyad in mature breastmilk. Breastmilk leukocyte content was measured by flow cytometry using the pan‐immune cell marker CD45, and leukocyte subtypes were examined by co‐staining for CD14, CD3, CD4, CD8, CD56, CD19, and CD15. When both the mother and infant were healthy, breastmilk contained 0‐2% of leykocytes. However, when either the mother or the infant had an infection, breastmilk leukocyte content increased to up to 94% of total cells, with the greatest increase observed in cases of mastitis. During the latter, the majority of immune cells were activated T‐cells that responded to viral peptides if stimulated in vitro, with corresponding proliferation and cytokine secretion. Interestingly, leukocyte content returned to baseline levels (蠄2%) upon recovery from the infection. Similar responses were observed for immunoglobulins and lactoferrin. Different leukocyte subset profiles were recorded for different infections, with T‐cells differing the most between infections (P&lt;0.004). These results demonstrate that breastmilk leukcyte content is dynamic, responding to the needs of the infant and reflecting the health status of the lactating breast. This is a new tool that can be potentially used to facilitate rapid diagnosis and treatment of conditions of the lactating breast.

Macronutrients in Human Milk

Aim. To study longitudinal macronutrient concentrations of colostrum and mature human milk (HM) and test the hypothesis that colostrum concentration of a given macronutrient might predict the concentration of this macronutrient in mature milk. Methods. We collected samples of expressed HM obtained from mothers of full-term infants. Each mother contributed 2 samples of HM—the first during 72 hours after labor (colostrum) and the second after 14 days. Macronutrient contents of the samples were measured using infrared transmission spectroscopy. Results. In all, 57 women were recruited. Only 44 of them gave both colostrum and 14-day samples. The energy, fat, and carbohydrate content of mature milk was significantly higher than that in colostrum, whereas the opposite was found for protein content. There was no significant relationship between maternal weight for height and protein, fat, or lactose content at any stage. Energy, fat, and protein content in colostrum did not correlate with values in mature milk. In contrast, the lactose content in mature milk was highly correlated with that of colostrum (R2 = 0.47, P &lt; .0001). Conclusion. Energy, fat, and protein content in colostrum do not predict values in mature milk. In contrast, lactose content in mature milk is highly correlated with that in colostrum.

Nutrition and immunity in newborns

Through fetal life, infancy and childhood, the immune system undergoes a process of functional maturation. The adequacy of this process is dependent on environmental factors, and there is strong evidence of the impact of preand post-natal nutrition in this regard [1]. The early postnatal period is a critical window for immune maturation of newborns. Exclusive human milk feeding for the first 6 months of life is recognized as the normative standard for infant feeding [2,3]. Human milk contains many hundreds to thousands of distinct bioactive molecules that protect against infection and inflammation as cytokines, nucleotides, hormones, and growth factors [2,3]. These specific protective components are so numerous, that science is just beginning to understand their functions. One of these is osteopontin. Human colostrum is very rich in osteopontin and mature human milk contains8 fold more osteopontin than cow’s milk. Recent studies suggest that human milk osteopontin might regulate inducible nitric oxide synthase and synthesis of nitric oxide, improve barrier function and reduce inflammation. Thereby mediating cell attachment, migration, chemotaxis and intracellular signaling, osteopontinhas important barrier functions, protecting the intestinalmucosa against drug-induced colitis in murine models, increasing the levels ofTGFbeta1 and decreasing pro-inflammatory cytokines [4]. Nutrition is a key component also for the composition of intestinal microbiota [5]. Several studies have provided conclusive evidence of the critical role of the intestinal microbiota in regulating both mucosal and systemic immunity [5]. Immediately after delivery, the human infant acquires a much complex microbiota. It is known that intestinal microbiome composition and diversity are affected by several factors as maternal clinical conditions, route of delivery, antibiotic administration and infant diet (breastversus formula-fed infants). In breast-fed babies, Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli quickly become dominant, whereas in formula-fed babies, Bacteroides species are prevalent, alongside other bacteria known to be enteric pathogens. Furthermore, breast milkcontains high concentrations of oligosaccharides, which ferment in the bowel and promote the growth of Bifidobacterium gut commensals. Dysbiosis in early life has been associated with immune-mediated childhood disorders and obesity [5]. In the long-term, nutritional strategies might improve the development of the microbiome and intestine with the final aim to enhance the clinical care of high-risk infants as low birth weight and premature infants. However, nutritional research to date suggests that there will not be a simple or single nutritional intervention but multiple actions are needed to reverse the association between malnutrition and infection.

Study on the levels of microRNA-146b, microRNA-155 and microRNA-30b in human milk and their correlation with maternal and infant health

Objective To explore the expression levels of immune-related microRNA-146b(miR-146b), microRNA-155(miR-155) and microRNA-30b(miR-30b) in human breast milk and its relationship with maternal and infant's health. Methods One hundred and thirty-four mothers and their infants from obstetrical department were recruited in the study after delivery.The subjects were divided into 2 groups, breast feeding group(n=86) and formula-fee-ding group(n=48), and were followed up 3 months after delivery.Breast milk samples were collected at 2-5 days after delivery(colostrum) and 3 months after delivery(mature milk). The expression levels of microRNAs in milk samples were detected by real-time PCR.The relationship between levels of microRNAs and maternal and infant-related factors was analyzed. Results 1.MiR-146b, miR-155 and miR-30b expressions were abundant both in human colostrums(5.950±0.823, 3.899±0.920, 4.057±0.604) and mature milk(4.840±0.805, 2.128±0.969, 4.929±0.566). The levels of miR-146b and miR-155 were higher in colostrum than that of mature milk(t=7.716, 10.215, all P<0.01), while the level of miR-30b was higher in mature milk than that of colostrums(t=-8.626, P<0.01).2.Additionally, the level of miR-30b was negatively correlated with maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index(r=-0.298, P<0.01).3.The levels of miR-146b and miR-30b were higher in mothers giving birth by vaginal delivery than those who underwent cesarean section(t=2.356, 3.108, all P<0.05).4.The levels of miR-146b and miR-155 were higher in colostrum-fed girls than boys(t=-2.204, -2.985, all P<0.05).5.The level of miR-146b in mature milk was negatively correlated with 3-month-old infant's Z score of body weight(r=-0.425, P<0.05) and body length(r=-0.569, P<0.01).6.During follow-up, the incidence of baby eczema in breast feeding group(8.82%, 3/34 cases) was lower than that in formula milk feeding group(29.17%, 14/48 cases) (χ2 = 5.012, P=0.025). Conclusions The levels of immunocompetent microRNAs in human milk are influenced by the lactation period, maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index, mode of delivery and infant sex.The immune-related microRNAs in human milk could be involved in the regulation of infant's immunity and growth. Key words: Human milk; Immunity; MicroRNA-146b; MicroRNA-155; MicroRNA-30b; Maternal and infant health

Contribution of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids to human milk is still low in Hungarian mothers.

Maternal diet has decisive influence on the fatty acid composition of human milk. Fifteen years ago, we found outstandingly low contribution of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) to human milk in a small group of Hungarian mothers. The major aim of the present study was to investigate whether DHA status in human milk in Hungary changed during the last 15 years. We aimed to examine the fatty acid composition of human milk at three different stages of lactation (3rd day, 6th week, and 6th month) in healthy Hungarian mothers. Fatty acid composition of human milk lipids was determined by gas chromatograph with flame ionization detector. Contribution of arachidonic acid to the fatty acid composition of human milk significantly decreased during lactation (0.91 [0.38] in colostrum, 0.53 [0.17] at 6th week, and 0.46 [0.13] at 6th month, p < 0.01). The contribution of DHA significantly decreased from colostrum to the 6th week of lactation (0.29 [0.12] and 0.14 [0.04], p < 0.01), without further changes by 6 months (0.12 [0.10]). The contribution of DHA to the fatty acid composition of mature human milk in Hungarian mothers is still among the lowest values ever reported in the literature.

Impact of Folic Acid Supplementation on Single- and Double-Stranded RNA Degradation in Human Colostrum and Mature Milk

Sufficient intake of folic acid is necessary for normal embryogenesis, fetal, and neonatal development. Folic acid facilitates nucleic acid internalization, and protects cellular DNA from nuclease degradation. Human milk contains enzymes, antimicrobial proteins, and antibodies, along with macrophages, that protect against infections and allergies. However, little to no information is available on the effects of folic acid supplementation on degradation of nucleic acids in human milk. In the present study, we aimed to determine the RNase activity (free and inhibitor-bound) in colostrum and mature milk, following folic acid supplementation. The study design included a total of 59 women, 27 of whom received 400 μg of folic acid daily periconceptionally and after. Folic acid supplementation increased the free RNase and polyadenylase activity following lactation. However, the increased RNase activity was not due to de novo enzyme synthesis, as the inhibitor-bound (latent) RNase activity was significantly lower and disappeared after one month. Folic acid reduced RNase activity by using double-stranded RNA as substrate. Data suggests that folic acid supplementation may improve viral RNAs degradation and mRNA degradation, but not dsRNA degradation, preserving in this way the antiviral defense.

Bovine κ-casein inhibits human rotavirus (HRV) infection via direct binding of glycans to HRV

Human rotavirus (HRV) is a major etiologic agent of severe infantile gastroenteritis. κ-Casein (κ-CN) from both human and bovine mature milk has been reported to have anti-HRV activity; however, the mechanism of this activity is poorly understood. The present study examined the molecular basis for the protective effect of bovine κ-CN derived from late colostrum (6–7 d after parturition) and from mature milk. Among the components of casein, κ-CN is the only glycosylated protein that has been identified. Therefore, we investigated whether the glycan residues in κ-CN were involved in the anti-HRV activity. Desialylated CN obtained by neuraminidase treatment exhibited anti-HRV activity, whereas deglycosylated CN obtained by o-glycosidase treatment lacked antiviral activity, indicating that glycans were responsible for the antiviral activity of CN. Furthermore, an evanescent-field fluorescence-assisted assay showed that HRV particles directly bound to heated casein (at 95°C for 30min) in a viral titer–dependent manner. Although the heated κ-CN retained inhibitory activity in a neutralization assay, the activity was weaker than that observed before heat treatment. Our findings indicate that the inhibitory mechanism of bovine κ-CN against HRV involves direct binding to viral particles via glycan residues. In addition, heat-labile structures in κ-CN may play an important role in maintenance of κ-CN binding to HRV.

Evaluation of mycotoxins and their metabolites in human breast milk using liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry

Humans can be exposed to mycotoxins through the food chain. Mycotoxins are mainly found as contaminants in food and could be subsequently excreted via biological fluids such as urine or human breast milk in native or metabolised form. Since breast milk is usually supposed as the only food for new-borns, the occurrence of mycotoxins in thirty-five human milk samples was evaluated by a newly developed method based on QuEChERS extraction and UHPLC–HRMS detection. The method described here allows the detection of target mycotoxins in order to determine the quality of this initial feeding. The method has been fully validated, with recoveries ranging from 64% to 93% and relative standard deviations (RSD, %) being lower than 20%. Using the method described, non-metabolised mycotoxins such as ZEA, NEO, NIV, ENA, ENA1, ENB, ENB1 and metabolites, such as ZEA metabolites, HT-2, DOM and T-2 triol were detected in human milk samples. Results obtained help to estimate the exposure of mothers and infants to mycotoxins. Moreover, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first work describing the simultaneous detection, quantification and screening of mycotoxins and their metabolites in human mature milk.

Differences in exosome populations in human breast milk in relation to allergic sensitization and lifestyle

Breast-feeding has many beneficial effects on the developing immune system of the newborn. Breast milk contains immunoregulatory factors, such as nano-sized vesicles named exosomes. This study aimed at characterizing breast milk exosomes from human early milk and mature milk and to investigate whether allergic sensitization and an anthroposophic lifestyle could influence the exosome profile. Breast milk was collected from 22 mothers at day 3-8 and from 61 mothers at 2months postpartum, all part of the ALADDIN birth cohort. Isolated exosomes were captured on anti-MHC-class II- or anti-CD63 beads and analyzed by flow cytometry. Exosomal phenotype was related to lifestyle and allergic sensitization of the mothers, and sensitization of the child at 2years of age. We found a higher content of exosomes in early milk compared with mature milk. Early milk exosomes were enriched in HLA-DR molecules and displayed significantly lower levels of HLA-ABC compared with those in mature milk. Phenotypically different subpopulations of exosomes were found in mature milk. Significantly lower levels of MUC1 were detected on CD63-enriched exosomes from sensitized mothers compared with nonsensitized. Furthermore, women with an anthroposophic lifestyle had significantly lower MUC1 expression on their HLA-DR-enriched milk exosomes and up-regulated levels of CD63 on CD63-enriched exosomes compared with nonanthroposophic mothers. Notably, mothers whose children developed sensitization had an increased amount of HLA-ABC on their milk exosomes enriched for CD63. The phenotype of exosomes in breast milk varies with maternal sensitization and lifestyle, which might influence allergy development in the child.

Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid intake during late pregnancy affects fatty acid composition of mature breast milk

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to investigate how maternal polyunsaturated fatty acid intake at different periods during pregnancy affects the composition of polyunsaturated fatty acids in mature human milk. MethodsA prospective study was conducted involving 45 pregnant women, aged between 18 and 35 y, who had full-term pregnancies and practiced exclusive or predominant breast-feeding. Mature breast milk samples were collected after the 5th postpartum week by manual expression; fatty acid composition was determined by gas chromatography. Fatty acid intake during pregnancy and puerperium was estimated through multiple 24-h dietary recalls. Linear regression models, adjusted by postpartum body mass index and deattenuated, were used to determine associations between estimated fatty acids in maternal diet during each trimester of pregnancy and fatty acid content in mature human milk. ResultsA positive association was identified between maternal intake of eicosapentaenoic acid (β, 1.873; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.545, 3.203) and docosahexaenoic acid (β, 0.464; 95% CI, 0.212–0.714) during the third trimester of pregnancy, as well as the maternal dietary ω-3 to ω-6 ratio (β, 0.093; 95% CI, 0.016–0.170) during the second and third trimesters and postpartum period, with these fatty acids content in mature breast milk. ConclusionsThe maternal dietary docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid content during late pregnancy may affect the fatty acid composition of mature breast milk. Additionally, the maternal dietary intake of ω-3 to ω-6 fatty acid ratio, during late pregnancy and the postpartum period, can affect the polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of breast milk.