Human-lion Conflict Research Articles

A scoping review of academic papers on human–lion conflict in Africa

AbstractAdopting a scoping review method, we examined peer‐reviewed academic papers published about human–lion conflict (HLC) (including coexistence) and identified knowledge gaps. We searched papers published between January 1981 and December 2023 using academic databases, with the key terms African lion, human–lion conflict, human–lion coexistence, and human–lion interaction. This produced 485 records, reduced to 137 after using additional criteria. Ninety‐eight papers were focused on lions in Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and Botswana. Ten pan‐African studies were identified in our review. Our inductive analysis identified four themes related to HLC: attitudes and perceptions toward lions, causes of HLC, consequences of HLC, and mitigating HLC. Some limitations identified in systematic reviews of human–wildlife conflict have been addressed in recent years, such as broadening the geographical scale of research. However, some knowledge gaps remain, including a lack of assessment of mitigation strategies and studies on climate changes impact on human–lion conflict. Addressing the knowledge gaps highlighted in this review will require diversifying the disciplinary composition of the research teams and increasing researcher reflexivity.

First systematic population survey of the desert‐adapted lions, Northwest Namibia

AbstractThe desert‐adapted lions (Panthera leo) of northwest Namibia inhabit arid and semi‐arid habitats, primarily within communal conservancy lands, which they share with semi‐nomadic pastoralists. Though of considerable conservation interest, no systematic population survey of these lions has previously been attempted. From 6 November 2022 to 6 January 2023, 45 trained surveyors covered approximately 40,000 km2 of conservancy and government‐managed lands, identifying individual lions by vibrissae (whisker‐spot) patterns and other demographic indicators. A systematic whole count, identifying every adult individual, was used to estimate population size. This approach drew upon the local ecological knowledge (LEK) of the Lion Rangers, community conservationists responsible for identifying and monitoring lions in their respective communal conservancies, as well as Regional Services staff of Namibia's Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT). The population is estimated between 57 and 60 individual adult lions and 14 cubs; this represents an inferred decrease of 46–60% over the past five years. At 0.11–0.12 lions/100 km2, this is the lowest recorded density for a free‐ranging, self‐sustaining lion population in Africa. Thirty‐six female and 21 male lions were found during the survey, yielding a sex ratio of 1 ♀: 0.58 ♂. While the population is considered stable and self‐sustaining despite recent declines, human‐lion conflict (HLC) remains the primary cause of lion mortality and recent drops in available prey are also concerning. Results serve as a baseline for future surveys, which will be an important part of monitoring this relatively small, widely dispersed population.

Lion (Panthera leo) movements in a multiuse area of the eastern Panhandle of the Okavango Delta, Botswana.

As global large carnivore populations continue to decline due to human actions, maintaining viable populations beyond protected area (PA) borders is critical. African lions (Panthera leo) ranging beyond PA borders regularly prey on domestic livestock causing humans to retaliate or even preemptively kill lions to minimize impacts of lost livestock. To understand how lions navigate high-conflict areas in human-dominated landscapes, lions were observed and monitored in the eastern Panhandle of the Okavango Delta between October 2014 and December 2016, and five lions were fitted with GPS satellite collars from August 2015 to December 2016. Lion prides and coalitions were small, with all prides having four or fewer females and all coalitions having two or fewer males. Home range size varied between the sexes but was not statistically different (males: = 584 km2, n = 3; females: = 319 km2, n = 2). There was considerable spatial overlap in home ranges as nonassociating, neighboring collared individuals utilized high levels of shared space (female-female overlap = 152 km2, representing 41-56% of respective home ranges; male-male overlap = 125-132 km2, representing 16-31% of respective home ranges). However, neighboring lions varied use of shared space temporally as evidenced by low coefficients of association (< 0.08), avoiding potentially costly interactions with neighboring individuals. Highest levels of overlap occurred during the wet and early dry seasons when flood waters minimized the amount of available land area. All collared individuals minimized time in close proximity (< 3 km) to human habitation, but some individuals were able to rely heavily on areas where unmonitored livestock grazed. While most lions exist within PAs, anthropogenic impacts beyond PA boundaries can impact critical populations within PAs. Studying systems beyond park boundaries with high levels of human-lion conflict while also establishing conservation programs that account for both ecological and sociocultural dimensions will better aid lion conservation efforts moving forward.

Lion Localizer: A software tool for inferring the provenance of lions (Panthera leo) using mitochondrial DNA.

The illegal poaching of lions for their body parts poses a severe threat to lion populations across Africa. Poaching accounts for 35% of all human-caused lion deaths, with 51% attributed to retaliatory killings following livestock predation. In nearly half of the retaliatory killings, lion body parts are removed, suggesting that high demand for lion body parts may fuel killings attributed to human-lion conflict. Trafficked items are often confiscated in transit or destination countries far from their country of origin. DNA from lion parts may in some cases be the only available means for examining their geographic origins. In this paper, we present the Lion Localizer, a full-stack software tool that houses a comprehensive database of lion mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences sourced from previously published studies. The database covers 146 localities from across the African continent and India, providing information on the potential provenance of seized lion body parts. Lion mtDNA sequences of 350 or 1,140 bp corresponding to the cytochrome b region can be generated from lion products and queried against the Lion Localizer database. Using the query sequence, the Lion Localizer generates a listing of exact or partial matches, which are displayed on an interactive map of Africa. This allows for the rapid identification of potential regions and localities where lions have been or are presently being targeted by poachers. By examining the potential provenance of lion samples, the Lion Localizer serves as a valuable resource in the fight against lion poaching. The software is available at https://lionlocalizer.org.

Community conservation and remote sensing of the desert-adapted lions in northwest Namibia

Community-based conservation of the desert-adapted lions takes place within the semi-arid and arid environments of northwest Namibia. This area is primarily designated as communal conservancies, a form of community-based natural resource management (CBNRM). The article describes the activities of the Lion Rangers program, a CBNRM organization, emphasizing how the use of remote sensing techniques, including the Spatial Analysis and Report Tools (SMART) software and mobile-app, GPS/satellite collars, and trail cameras, contribute to lion monitoring and limiting human–lion conflict (HLC). Remote sensing data are being integrated with historical and sociological research, with applicable lessons for lion conservation and conservation of other problem-causing species.

Optimal foraging of lions at the human wildlands interface

AbstractOptimal foraging and landscape of fear theories provide frameworks which can be useful for investigating animal's space and prey use decisions. Predators, such as African lions Panthera leo, are likely to respond to prey abundance, accessibility, profitability and potential risks, often anthropogenic in nature, while making foraging decision. Identifying the relative role of these processes has important conservation implications. We investigated the relative role of responses to a pastoralist landscape of fear within lion feeding and spatial ecology in a landscape at the human‐wildlands interface. We collected spatial and predation data from 12 GPS‐collared lions and ungulate count data from transects, along the South Africa–Mozambique border, including parts of Kruger, Limpopo and Banhine National Parks. We calculated Jacobs' Index values from 80 kills to investigate lion selection of wild and domestic ungulates as prey, used maximum entropy modelling to predict multi‐season ungulate spatial occurrence and used resource selection functions to estimate the relative probability of use of wild and domestic ungulate areas by lions. All lions had access to wild prey and domestic livestock within their home ranges. Lions showed a strong selection for large‐bodied wild ungulates as prey taking waterbuck, zebra, kudu and buffalo more frequently then predicted by their availability. Lions showed a slight avoidance of cattle as prey, with cattle outnumbering larger ungulates across much of the study area. Lions showed the greatest selection for habitats with high occurrences of wild prey, specifically areas with kudu, then nyala and buffalo, during the dry seasons and showed strong avoidance of cattle areas during the wet season; a season when cattle are kept closer to settlements and thus better protected and easier to predict and avoid. These results suggest that lions select for wild prey and habitats optimally, yet show a fear response to cattle and cattle areas. This duality in the foraging behaviour of lions suggests that efforts to mitigate human–lion conflict and preserve vulnerable lion populations should focus on both increasing wild ungulate populations as well as exploiting lion's fear of humans with careful consideration of the risks of livestock presence acting as an ecological trap for vulnerable lion populations.

Towards equitable conservation: Social capital, fear and livestock loss shape perceived benefit from a protected area.

Providing sufficient benefits to local people can be an important component of effective and equitable conservation, especially where local communities face substantial opportunity costs or disbenefits from conservation. However, the distribution of benefits to local people is often inadequate or inequitable. In this study we investigated the heterogeneity in the extent to which people living near Hwange National Park (HNP), Zimbabwe, perceive benefit from the presence of the park. Specifically, we examined the relationships between a diverse set of candidate predictor variables and perceived benefit from HNP. Our candidate predictor variables broadly relate to personal assets, social capital, value orientation, fear of lions, and belief and participation in human-wildlife conflict mitigation schemes. One third of respondents reported that their household experienced at least some benefits from HNP. Of all respondents, 6% perceived their household to benefit strongly from HNP and 2% very strongly. Livestock loss to wildlife was the most important factor for predicting perceived benefit, with those suffering more loss less likely to perceive benefit. Multiple demographic factors predicted perceived benefit with, for instance, older people and those with less education perceiving less benefit. Employment in conservation-related work positively affected perceived benefit, whereas fear of lions had a negative impact. Social capital appeared to have a positive influence on perceived benefit from HNP. The relationship between social capital and perceived benefit was positive and plateauing, which suggests that social capital is especially impactful on the benefit perceived by individuals reporting the least social capital. We also found a positive association between belief in compensation schemes and perceived benefit from HNP. We posit hypotheses for this association but are unable to determine the underlying drivers of this relationship. Finally, participation in the community guardians programme, a human-lion conflict mitigation programme, was positively related to perceived benefit from HNP. Thus, our findings emphasise the value of considering a diverse array of factors when investigating park-people relationships and yield insights for improving the equitability of conservation in and around HNP and similar systems.

An experimental game to examine pastoralists' preferences for human–lion coexistence strategies

Abstract Reconciling conflicts between wildlife conservation and other human activities is a pervasive, multifaceted issue. Large carnivores, such as the African lion Panthera leo are often the focus of such conflicts as they have significant ecological and cultural value but impose severe social and financial costs on the communities that live alongside them. To effectively manage human–lion conflict, it is vital to understand stakeholder decision‐making and preferences regarding mitigation techniques and coexistence strategies. We used a novel experimental game framed around lions and livestock protection, played across eight villages in Tanzania, to examine stakeholder behaviour in response to three incentive structures: support for non‐lethal scaring, and individual‐ and community‐level subsidies for provision of wildlife habitat. We found that non‐lethal deterrent methods were the preferred mitigation strategy and that individual subsidies most increased the provision of wildlife habitat. Subsidies that were conditional on other community members' decisions were less effective at increasing habitat choices. Player characteristics and attitudes appeared to have little influence on game behaviour. However, there was some evidence that gender, wealth, perceptions of respect, and the behaviour of other players affected decision‐making. Achieving success in managing conservation conflicts requires genuine stakeholder participation leading to mutually beneficial results. Our findings suggest that, while incentive‐based instruments can promote pro‐conservation behaviour, these may be more effective when targeted at individuals rather than groups. We demonstrate how experimental games offer a practical and engaging approach that can be used to explore preferences and encourage discussion of conflict management. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Evaluating the impact of Warrior Watch: Behaviour change to promote human-lion coexistence

Promoting human-wildlife coexistence is one of the most complex and pressing global conservation challenges faced today, particularly for large carnivore species. Effective conservation of large carnivores rests on interventions fostering coexistence in human-dominated landscapes, across the large ranges on which they depend. However, there is a paucity of research evaluating such interventions, and impact on the social determinants of behavioural outcomes. To bridge this evidence gap, we evaluate the impact of Warrior Watch, a grassroots intervention established in 2010 that draws on the traditional social structures and roles of Samburu pastoralists in northern Kenya to mitigate human-lion conflict peacefully. Using a novel approach blending elements of theory-based methods and traditional impact evaluations, and tailored to local resources and capacities, we evaluate the impact of Warrior Watch on a) attitudes towards lions and b) killing intentions as a proxy for tolerance. We show that warriors in the intervention site reported significantly more positive attitudes towards lions and were significantly less likely to indicate intentions to kill lions than their counterparts in the comparison conservancy. Furthermore, respondents in the intervention site were significantly more likely to report positive changes in their attitudes and tolerance towards lions since the inception of Warrior Watch, and to attribute these changes to the intervention. Our study demonstrates how evaluations tailored to local capacities and resource-limited situations can produce robust insights to support the adaptive management of interventions and increase the evidence-base to guide conservation practice.

Differentiated payments for ecosystem services based on estimated prey consumption by lions within communal conservancies in northwest Namibia

When effectively applied, differentiated payments for ecosystem services (DPES) can help offset certain costs incurred by communities living alongside destructive wildlife. In areas with human-lion conflict (HLC), strategies for addressing the costs of living with large carnivores have primarily focused on compensation payments for lost livestock, but a more complete approach would include the value of prey species consumed by lions that might otherwise have market value for local communities. We introduce an approach for translating the value of prey species consumed by lions from opportunity costs into DPES as one approach for assessing the costs of coexistence with lions. Because lions are unequally distributed across the landscape, efficient DPES require spatially explicit lion movement data. Using data from GPS-collared lions, we link the movements of five lions within six communal conservancies in northwest Namibia to predation rates to estimate the differentiated opportunity costs to each conservancy in the form of wild prey species consumed by lions. Using two population estimates, we show how movement and predation data could be scaled up and suggest applications for addressing other human-wildlife scenarios.

Lion (Panthera leo) diet and cattle depredation on the Kuku Group Ranch Pastoralist area in southern Maasailand, Kenya

Context African lion (Panthera leo) populations are declining throughout Africa, but the problem is particularly acute in southern Kenya, where human–lion conflict is common. Aims Using the Kuku Group Ranch (KGR) in southern Kenya as a case study, we investigated lion diet and the potential drivers of temporal variation in cattle depredation. Methods Using GPS clusters, we investigated the main prey species consumed by lions to determine lion diet. Prey preference of lions in relation to prey availability was then assessed using a Jacobs index to determine whether cattle or wild prey were preferred. We used reported depredation events recorded by verification officers over 36 months (2016–2018) to investigate whether temporal variation in cattle depredation by lions was linked to variation in lag rainfall, normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) or availability of the most important large non-domestic prey items. Key results Six prey species (cattle, Bos taurus; Burchell’s zebra, Equus quagga; Coke’s hartebeest, Alcelaphus cokeii; Maasai giraffe, Giraffa tippelskirchi; blue wildebeest, Connochaetes taurinus; and eland, Tragelaphus oryx) made up 92% of the biomass consumed by lions on KGR. Cattle are the most consumed prey item and contribute the second most to consumed biomass after giraffe. However, once prey availability is considered, lions preferred wild prey. Verification officers identified 330 cattle depredation events over 3 years, and we show that the most important predictor of monthly cattle depredation by lions was cumulative rainfall in the preceding 3 months. Conclusions Our results on cattle depredation by lions showed that rainfall and its influence on the environment are important drivers of cattle depredation. Understanding the mechanistic link between lion depredation and rainfall enables us to predict when depredation events may increase and allows hypotheses on the reason why this spike in depredation takes place to be explored. Implications Given that climate-change models indicate that East Africa will experience prolonged and increased seasonal rainfall, we predict that periods when cattle are vulnerable to lion depredation may increase. Therefore, it is imperative to ensure that cattle husbandry is improved during these wetter periods to minimise the risk of conflict and retaliatory killing of lions.

Effectiveness of community-based livestock protection strategies: a case study of human–lion conflict mitigation

AbstractConservation scientists are increasingly recognizing the need to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions to improve human–wildlife coexistence across different contexts. Here we assessed the long-term efficacy of the Long Shields Community Guardians programme in Zimbabwe. This community-based programme seeks to protect livestock and prevent depredation by lionsPanthera leothrough non-lethal means, with the ultimate aim of promoting human–lion coexistence. Using a quasi-experimental approach, we measured temporal trends in livestock depredation by lions and the prevalence of retaliatory killing of lions by farmers and wildlife managers. Farmers that were part of the Long Shields programme experienced a significant reduction in livestock loss to lions, and the annual number of lions subject to retaliatory killing by farmers dropped by 41% since the start of the programme in 2013, compared to 2008–2012, before the programme was initiated. Our findings demonstrate the Long Shields programme can be a potential model for limiting livestock depredation by lions. More broadly, our study demonstrates the effectiveness of community-based interventions to engage community members, improve livestock protection and ameliorate levels of retaliatory killing, thereby reducing human–lion conflict.

Human-Lion Conflict and the Reproduction of White Supremacy in Northwest Namibia

AbstractThroughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, colonial governments used human-lion interactions to further their efforts to reproduce white supremacy in northwest Namibia. Drawing on archival, oral, and published sources, Heydinger presents this “animal-sensitive history,” which examines the central role of livestock in antagonistic human-lion interactions. The government has historically played a major role in securing European dominance over lions, while African pastoralists have suffered from human-lion conflict. Government interventions had lasting effects on human livelihoods and the geography of lion survival. Lions were eradicated on white farms, but they thrived in Etosha—where livestock were prohibited—and yet maintain a tenuous presence in Kaokoveld. Heydinger examines the ways in which human livelihoods and lion survival remain linked to one another to this day.

Lion (Panthera leo) ecology and survival in protected areas of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is renowned for its cultural and biological diversity and covers an important share of lion habitat in Africa, providing connectivity between East and Central Africa. The aim of this study was to investigate the status of lions and human–lion conflict in several protected areas of Ethiopia and to present an overview on lion distribution nationally. We used call-ups and semi-structured interviews with 809 randomly selected pastoralists to investigate human–lion conflict and pastoralist perceptions towards lions in five priority sites and collected further anecdotal information for all other known or possible lion range. We had chance encounters with six lions, but we observed no lion responses to the call-ups. We recorded 145 spotted hyaena and 23 jackal responses at, respectively, 25 and 13 of the 46 call-up stations. Overall, respondents viewed lions as dangerous carnivores, but nonetheless responded that lions should be present regionally, preferably in restricted areas. Most respondents disagreed that the killing of lions should be allowed, but we note that a small minority strongly agreed to killing. A large majority of respondents agreed that more people need to be given information about lions. Respondents mentioned spotted hyaena and leopard as the main predators on all livestock followed by jackal (shoats) and lion (mainly cattle). The impact of depredation on livestock mortality was nearly twice that of disease. Our results strongly suggest that lion densities are low and may have substantially decreased in Awash, Nechisar, Chebera-Churchura, and Mago National Parks and in Kaffa Biosphere Reserve due to conflict, habitat loss and especially ineffective protection. Anecdotal information suggests that lions are widespread but rare and that there is no stronghold in Ethiopia. Considering the unique evolutionary background of Ethiopia as the bridge between Central and East African lion populations, and the significant role of the lion in Ethiopian history and culture, we argue that more emphasis should be given to the protection of prioritized lion populations.

Spatial ecology of lions in a small, semi-fenced park surrounded by dense human populations: the case study of Nairobi National Park, Kenya

Abstract Human population growth near protected areas often results in detrimental edge effects for apex carnivores, such as the African lion. Urbanization leads to new scenarios of the human–lion conflict, thus understanding ranging patterns close to urban environments is crucial to inform future management strategies. We collected GPS data from 12 collared lions between 2014 and 2018 in Nairobi National Park, which borders the capital city of Kenya, Nairobi city. We estimated home ranges, calculated daily distance traveled and tested for differences between sex, season and pride. Additionally, we investigated how disturbance from Nairobi and surrounding human settlements affected space-use of lions, and tested for differences between sex, season and time of day. Lions showed restricted movements (4.5 km/day) and had small home ranges (49 km2). Male lions had larger ranges than females, but avoidance behavior of disturbed areas was similar. Lions took advantage during times of low human activity, i.e., during the night, to extend ranging behavior in search for resources. Risk for livestock depredation also increased during the wet season when lions roamed longer, more frequently, and deeper into the community lands. We recommend the establishment of buffer zones to maintain a viable lion population and reduced risk for conflict.

Ecological Doctors in Maasailand: Identifying Herding Best Practices to Improve Livestock Management and Reduce Carnivore Conflict

Ilkisonko Maasai pastoralists in the Amboseli ecosystem of southern Kenya earn livestock-based livelihoods in a difficult environment exacerbated by a range of challenges. In this setting, many stakeholders, including the Maasai themselves, have come to see traditional extensive pastoralism as essential to long-term social-ecological resilience. This includes the maintenance of communal land tenure, which protects both unfragmented landscapes and the cultural practices necessary to thrive therein. This land tenure system has also been well-documented to support diverse wildlife populations, including large carnivores such as the African lion. Lion Guardians is a conservation organization working on the group ranches of the Amboseli ecosystem to reduce human-lion conflict using culturally appropriate strategies, with a thirteen-year track record of reductions in lion killing as compared to other conflict mitigation approaches. However, in recent years they have noted a marked increase in the amount of lost livestock. Lion Guardians’ data indicate that untended livestock account for >80% of lion attacks, making them a primary driver of human-lion conflict in the ecosystem. In this paper, we present the results of a community-based qualitative study aimed at identifying the causes of lost livestock, in pursuit of win-win solutions for people and lions. Using an iterative multi-stage research process, we conducted interviews with more than 120 Maasai community members. Finding general agreement that lost livestock are a problem and that poor herding practices are the primary cause, we next sought to identify both herder and herder-mentor best practices. For this, we focused on the knowledge of elders and “master herders”, those identified by their communities as especially adept and responsible herders. In creating these lists, we learned that herding best practices relevant to carnivore-conflict prevention are inseparable from those related to pasture management and livestock productivity, and largely inseparable from traditional Maasai culture. This means that good herders, who have been called “ecological doctors”, can support the vitality of not only plants and pastures but also lions, ecosystems, and entire human cultures.

Human dimensions of human–lion conflict: a pre- and post-assessment of a lion conservation programme in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

SummaryHumans are contributing to large carnivore declines around the globe, and conservation interventions should focus on increasing local stakeholder tolerance of carnivores and be informed by both biological and social considerations. In the Okavango Delta (Botswana), we tested new conservation strategies alongside a pre-existing government compensation programme. The new strategies included the construction of predator-proof livestock enclosures, the establishment of an early warning system linked to GPS satellite lion collars, depredation event investigations and educational programmes. We conducted pre- and post-assessments of villagers’ livestock management practices, attitudes towards carnivores and conservation, perceptions of human–carnivore coexistence and attitudes towards established conservation programmes. Livestock management levels were low and 50% of farmers lost livestock to carnivores, while 5–10% of owned stock was lost. Respondents had strong negative attitudes towards lions, which kill most depredated livestock. Following new management interventions, tolerance of carnivores significantly increased, although tolerance of lions near villages did not. The number of respondents who believed that coexistence with carnivores was possible significantly increased. Respondents had negative attitudes towards the government-run compensation programme, citing low and late payments, but were supportive of the new management interventions. These efforts show that targeted, intensive management can increase stakeholder tolerance of carnivores.

Improving Human-Lion Conflict Research Through Interdisciplinarity

Wicked socio-ecological problems are inherently complex and require an interdisciplinary approach to mitigate. Here, we investigated the many drivers of human-lion conflict in East Africa and present a novel conceptual model illustrating the intricate interactions within and between the five main dimensions of conflict. We highlight the importance of broadening research efforts to include these multiple dimensions at all stages of the research process as well as to incorporate higher levels of diversity into research teams. We offer examples and recommendations on how to approach human-lion conflict from a more interdisciplinary perspective. However, challenges exist and will continue to arise as diverse interdisciplinary teams form. We address several main barriers to interdisciplinarity and encourage researchers and institutions to support a team science approach to solving wicked problems like human-lion conflict.

Desert-adapted lions on communal land: Surveying the costs incurred by, and perspectives of, communal-area livestock owners in northwest Namibia

Though subsistence pastoralism is the primary land-use throughout much of Africa, lions (Panthera leo) living outside protected areas are largely overlooked in discussions of pan-African lion conservation. In northwest Namibia, a unique population of desert-adapted lions has grown by >400% over the past twenty years. This growth has primarily taken-place upon communal conservancy land. Human-caused lion mortality following human-lion conflict (HLC) is now the primary direct threat to the persistence of these lions. HLC exacerbates challenges faced by pastoralists from an ongoing drought. Our survey is the first-ever attempt to quantitatively and qualitatively examine local pastoralists' perceptions of the desert-adapted lions and the impacts of living with lions in northwest Namibia. Results show that losses, due to drought and lions, are differentiated by livestock species and that the magnitude of livestock losses during the drought has been exacerbated by predation. Respondents in different conservancies reported different levels of hostility towards lions. Across all conservancies, though 83.9% do not benefit from living with lions, 75.9% state that it is important to continue to share communal land with lions. We discuss the cultural and livelihood effects of livestock losses as well as the implications of balancing the costs and benefits of living with lions for lion conservation.

Environmental predictors of livestock predation: a lion's tale

AbstractNegative interactions between people and large carnivores are common and will probably increase as the human population and livestock production continue to expand. Livestock predation by wild carnivores can significantly affect the livelihoods of farmers, resulting in retaliatory killings and subsequent conflicts between local communities and conservationists. A better understanding of livestock predation patterns could help guide measures to improve both human relationships and coexistence with carnivores. Environmental variables can influence the intensity of livestock predation, are relatively easy to monitor, and could potentially provide a useful predictive framework for targeting mitigation. We chose lion predation of livestock as a model to test whether variations in environmental conditions trigger changes in predation. Analysing 6 years of incident reports for Pandamatenga village in Botswana, an area of high human–lion conflict, we used generalized linear models to show that significantly more attacks coincided with lower moonlight levels and temperatures, and attack severity increased significantly with extreme minimum temperatures. Furthermore, we found a delayed effect of rainfall: lower rainfall was followed by a significantly increased severity of attacks in the following month. Our results suggest that preventative measures, such as introducing deterrents or changing livestock management, could be implemented adaptively based on environmental conditions. This could be a starting point for investigating similar effects in other large carnivores, to reduce livestock attacks and work towards wider human–wildlife coexistence.