Human Intellectual Abilities Research Articles

인공지능의 소프트웨어 오류로 인한 민사책임

Artificial intelligence refers to the fact that some or all of human intellectual abilities, such as learning, reasoning, judgment, understanding, and behavior, have been implemented through computer programs. Therefore, software is very important. Nevertheless, not much research has been done regarding artificial intelligence software.It is necessary to update to the latest OS before OS support is terminated in order to prevent accidents while using artificial intelligence with end-of-support OS. In order to enable such automatic updating, consumers must have prior consent to automatic updating. Such consent shall be freely made, specific, sufficient information should have been provided and should be a clear indication. In addition, consent for these automatic updates is likely to be made comprehensively in advance, and obtaining consent in this way constitutes a 'conventions'. Therefore, it is subject to the Terms and Conditions Act. Furthermore, since continuous updates are necessary for the safety of the software, solutions such as receiving individual consent whenever there is an update, even if there is an objection to automatic updating. If, in the process of obtaining individual consent, a failure of the software that has not been upgraded results in loss of artificial intelligence, etc., it is reasonable to ensure that the liability for the damage is borne by the owner.If the manufacturer does not make an update, the consumer may claim the update from the seller on the basis of the liability. However, it is not desirable to claim an update from a seller who has only sold a simple product, and it would be most desirable to claim an update from a manufacturer because it is the manufacturer who knows the most about the software.However, artificial intelligence's software is likely to claim what it calls an "ambition of development risk" that the level of science and technology at the time the manufacturer supplied the product was not able to detect the existence of the defect. In this respect, moreover, the need for a manufacturing observation obligation arises. However, the Product Liability Act of Korea provides only for the effect of violating the Product Observation obligation, but does not stipulate how the obligation is fulfilled. Therefore, it is likely that these parts will need to be specified. Therefore, it is likely that regulations on specific methods of implementing active manufacturing observation obligations will be necessary, and that changes in design and legalization of recovery obligations will be required as a means of implementing such active manufacturing observation obligations.In addition, the Manufacturing Accountability Act imposes a heavy burden on manufacturers as it is responsible for no fault. In addition, the burden is likely to be greater if, as mentioned, the recovery obligation and design change, one of the methods for implementing the manufacturing observation obligation are required. This burden will eventually lead to higher prices for manufactured goods, or artificial intelligence, which will lead to consumer burdens. Mandatory manufacturing reimbursement insurance is required to address these problems.

Using visual analytics to develop human and machine‐centric models: A review of approaches and proposed information technology

AbstractThe use of a visual analytical system in machine learning is the basis for the integration of human and the use of his intellectual capabilities in the construction of models. At the same time, visual analytics is used to expand human knowledge and is used as a research tool. We investigate the forms and goals of using visual analytics workflow toward the formation of the final product. Workflow is divided into human‐oriented and machine‐oriented in order to build a model as an information processor and decision‐making mechanism. Models are built on the basis of the end user, which can be either a machine or a human. The concepts of model building and the role of machines and humans in these processes are investigated. A practical implementation of the classification information technology in the studied concept “using opposite model” in the machine‐oriented visual analytics workflow for using the machine model is proposed. The basis for this model is a model formed and used by human. To classify data, human intellectual abilities are used. The boundaries of classes are determined by a human and then projected into a hyperspace of attributes with the formation of a classification model that the machine uses. Information technology allows the machine to use a model built for humans.

PERLINDUNGAN HUKUM ATAS HAK KEKAYAAN INTELEKTUAL HASIL PENELITIAN DOSEN

Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) defines as rights about the property arising of human intellectual abilities. The skills may include the field of technology, science, art, and literature. The law must be able to protect the intellectual work so the community can develop their creativity and ultimately leads to the successful goal of protecting IPRs. The aim of this study is to explore the legal protection of IPRs for the Lectures’ research findings. This study applies normative juridical research method that focuses on positive legal norms governing the Legal Protection of IPRs for lecturers’ research findings. The results of this study are (1) a substantive requirement that requires applied patent meets requirements include brand new product, inventive, applicable through the basic provisions of article 2 to 5 of Patent Law, and (2) Based on the existence of copyrighted books, as previously reviewed that the protection system adheres to automatically protection which means in order to obtain legal protection it is not compulsory for the creator to go through the registration process as the protection is existed since the work was created, such as books copyrights.

IMPACT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN EXISTENCE EACH DAY

In the modern world, artificial intelligence continues to evolve dramatically with day by day new and improved innovations. The computers have now been designed to perform simple tasks such as vehicle identification, facial recognition and many more. The major goal of AI is the development of sophisticated and dramatically more complicated systems to outperform individuals in any way. This involves performing more difficult tasks such as chess-playing and finding solutions for equations. The major goal of AI is to improve all human activities as well as to provide better alternatives than human being solves an issue. The automated system, which carries out all human activities, from vehicle control to computerized commercial applications, will face a number of challenges in the future. However, it prevents the production of lethal weapons that once used to strike, harm people noticeably. The development of super Artificial intelligence, which improves self, triggers an intelligence explosion, however would greatly discontinue human intellectual ability. The development of super AI is the largest breakthrough in human existence history. The development of advanced technology thus contributed significantly to the removal of conflicts, effective means of disease prevention and application development. In this paper, we analyze the influence of AI on our daily lives, as well as various things such as AI's growth, AI's challenges, applications of AI in various aspects of life and Artificial Intelligence ethics.

Penerapan Pasal 68 Ayat 1 Jo Pasal 4 Dan 6 Undang-Undang No.15 Tahun 2001 Dalam Penyelesaian Sengketa Merek Kok Tong Kopitiam pada Putusan No. 05/Merek/2010/PN.Niaga Medan

<p class="JudulAbstrakInggris"><em>Application of Article 68 Paragraph 1 Jo Article 4 and 6 of Law No. 15 of 2001 in Brand Dispute Resolution Kok Tong Kopitiam of Decision No. 05 / Merek / 2010 / PN.Niaga Medan</em></p><p class="JudulAbstrakInggris">Abstract</p><h1>Brands are the result of human thought and intelligence which can take the form of discovery. Brands are used as a differentiator between products produced by a person or legal entity with products produced by other parties. The current journey to free trade, aspects of intellectual property rights, will play a very important role in national and international trade. Intellectual property rights are rights that arise or are born due to human intellectual abilities in the form of findings, works, creations or creations in the field of technology, science, art and literature. Based on Article 68 paragraph (1) of Law Number 15 of 2001 which states that "Brand cancellation claims can be filed by interested parties based on the reasons referred to in Article 4, Article 5, and Article 6. This type of research is normative juridical namely research which is focused on reviewing the application or rules or norms in positive law. The nature of this research is analytical descriptive, which carefully describes the characteristics of the facts to determine the frequency of something that happens. The purpose of this study was to find out the judge's consideration in resolving the dispute over the Kong Tong Kopi Tiam brand and to find out the relationship between Article 68 paragraph (1) Jo. Articles 4 and 6 of Law Number 15 of 2001 in the resolution of the Kok Tong Kopi Tiam brand dispute.</h1>

Simultaneous EEG-FMRI reveals spindle-related neural correlates of human intellectual abilities during NREM sleep

Simultaneous EEG-FMRI reveals spindle-related neural correlates of human intellectual abilities during NREM sleep

PERLINDUNGAN HUKUM TERHADAP PENGETAHUAN OBAT-OBATAN TRADISIONAL DALAM REZIM HAK KEKAYAAN INTELEKTUAL (HKI) INDONESIA (Studi Pada Masyarakat Tradisional Sasak)

In the modern context, the Traditional Medicine Knowledge (TMK) of Sasak community is a valuable economic asset considering its usage as a basic knowledge (milestone) in the modern medicine discovery. As a form of human intellectual ability, TMK is regulated under the IPRs-TRIPs regime, whereas TMK have prominent opposite characters with IPRs. This fact raises particular issues in terms of: the form of Sasak community’s TMK, regulation of its protection under the IPRs regime and the ideal legal institution to realize the protection. The majority of Sasak’s TMK are transmitted verbally, a fraction of it was written in babon (book of) tetamba/oat and lontar Usada. The IPRs-TRIPs regime only provides indirect regulation toward TMK, as contained in Patent and Plant Variety Protection Law. Ideally, there should be a local Law that particularly regulates protection on Sasak’s TMK in order to prevent misappropriation. Thus, there is a void of Law since there is no Sui Generis Law on the protection of TMK.Keywords: legal protection, traditional medicine knowledge, legal void

The lexical-semantic representation of the concept of abilities in the dialectical linguistic image of the world (the case adjectives of the Serbian speech of Prizren)

A fragment of the dialectical linguistic image of the world which represents the concept of the human intellect is linguistically manifested through the lexical-semantic subfield of abilities, which with the subfields of temperament and character completes the lexical-semantic field of human psychological characteristics and gives a more comprehensive account of the psychological profile of the Prizren dialectical persona. Within the lexical-semantic subfield of abilities we identify two parameters for the classification of lexemes, one in the field of intellectual and one in the field of psychomotor abilities. The lexical paradigm, based on semantic fields theory, is represented as a system of units organized into smaller lexical groups: the LSG of adjectives with the hyperseme ?intellectual abilities? and the LSG of adjectives with the hyperseme ?psychomotor abilities?. The human intellectual abilities are primarily reflected in the smart - dumb opposition. The set of units used to represent the negative sphere of human intellectual abilities is disproportionately broader in comparison to the lexical groups whose constituents have a more positive connotation. The constituents of the lexical-semantic subfield abilities combine elements from the intellectual sphere of the human psyche (smart, sensible, wise, able, skillful, agile, resourceful, quickwitted, sharp; dumb, imprudent, distracted, foolish, witless, crazy, insane). Here we can clearly see the distinction between the opposites smart - dumb and smart - crazy, while on the negative axis we can note the gradual transition from a mental state into a psychological state (dumb - crazy; crazy - dumb). The number of lexical features which can be used to mark the human intellectual capacity, the choice of the lexeme used to mark a man as a bearer of these features, and the high production of expressives in the domain of human intellectual characterization indicate that the principles of the intellect have a significant role to play in the understanding of the conceptualization of an individual among various speakers of a particular dialect.

Paideia Education for learners' Competencies in the Age of Artificial Intelligence - The Google DeepMind Challenge Match

Baduk was produced by Emperors Yao and Shun in ancient China to instruct their sons, and it is the most intricate game that has ever invented and demands a high level of both intuition and insight in order for the players of the game to check their overall strategic position and consider their moves accordingly. Baduk has a symbolic significance as it represents the highest limit of human intellectual ability, and has remained so until this day. The game is also the holy grail of artificial intelligence (AI). For this research study, we analyzed Baduk matches that took place between AlphaGo, a supercomputer, and Lee Sedol, one of the top Baduk players in the world, as well as examining archival research in order to discuss learning capabilities and the appropriate learning techniques for students in the age of AI. In March 2016, AlphaGo played against Lee and beat him, and he was arguably the world’s best Baduk player (professional nine-dan level) in Google’s DeepMind Challenge Match. During the match, AlphaGo introduced a new model in Baduk as its play deviated significantly from the common plays of professional Baduk players. The age in which AI surpasses human intelligence is considered to be a point of “singularity” in the history of human civilization. A singularity is a term denoting an unknown territory in which we cannot make easy predictions. In order to prepare for the new age of AI, we may have to go back to the beginning of human civilization to learn from the wisdom of the educational system of the ancients. To be specific, to prepare for this new age, we can learn from Baduk education of ancient China and the Paideia education of ancient Greece, from which we can deduce the strengths kept within human nature.

Extending mind, visuospatial integration, and the evolution of the parietal lobes in the human genus

Current theories in extended mind suggest that cognition is the result of an integrative process involving brain, body, and environment. The relationships between inner and outer components strictly depend on the functional interface, which is represented by the body. Posture and locomotion influence the sensorial and behavioral relationships between the body and the environment which, in Primates, are strongly dependent on the eye-hand system, and coordinated by processes of visuospatial integration. The upper and medial parietal areas (like the precuneus and the intraparietal sulcus) are crucial for such functions. These areas are associated with specific human cortical features, and have undergone relevant morphological changes in Homo sapiens. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that the visuospatial functions and the role of the body as an interface have experienced important evolutionary changes in our species. Neandertals did not display similar changes in terms of brain morphology, and at the same time they showed a different manipulative behavior: they needed their teeth and mouth to properly handle tools much more than any modern human group does. This may suggest a different (and probably less specialized) way to integrate inner and outer components through the body interface. Archaeology is essential to evaluate possible functional changes in extinct human species, by considering other kinds of visuospatial behaviors that are evident from human ecology and material culture. We suggest that changes in the visuospatial integration functions and in the parietal areas may have represented an essential component for enhancing embodiment capacity. What remains to be established is the role of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors, in generating anatomical and functional differences among human species and between human and non-human primates. Visuospatial integration, within the perspective of extended cognition, may have had a major influence in establishing current human intellectual abilities and social patterns.

Embryo Selection for Cognitive Enhancement: Curiosity or Game‐changer?

AbstractHuman capital is an important determinant of individual and aggregate economic outcomes, and a major input to scientific progress. It has been suggested that advances in genomics may open up new avenues to enhance human intellectual abilities genetically, complementing environmental interventions such as education and nutrition. One way to do this would be via embryo selection in the context of in vitro fertilization (IVF). In this article, we analyze the feasibility, timescale, and possible societal impacts of embryo selection for cognitive enhancement. We find that embryo selection, on its own, may have significant (but likely not drastic) impacts over the next 50 years, though large effects could accumulate over multiple generations. However, there is a complementary technology – stem cell‐derived gametes – which has been making rapid progress and which could amplify the impact of embryo selection, enabling very large changes if successfully applied to humans.

Association between Genetic Polymorphism rs2952768, Close to the METTL21A and CREB1 Genes, and Intellectual Ability in Healthy Subjects

Objective: Human intelligence, which represents a set of cognitive abilities, is assumed to be a highly heterogenic trait. The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is the most widely used index for characterizing human intelligence in psychometric studies, and knowledge of the genes associated with IQ has continuously grown. Several previous reports indicated that IQ may be associated with addictive behaviors or the use of addictive substances, although the trend toward an association is not straightforward and depends on the substances abused. To explore the genetic factors that contribute to IQ, we conducted an association study of a genetic polymorphism, rs2952768. The rs2952768 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) was recently reported to be associated with human opioid sensitivity and shown to be associated with the efficacy of opioid analgesics, severity of substance dependence, and mRNA expression levels of a neighboring gene, CREB1. Methods: The present study used data from 298 biologically unrelated Japanese subjects. Psychiatrically, medically, and neurologically healthy subjects were evaluated using the Structured Clinical Interview for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, Non-Patient Edition (SCID-I/NP), to exclude individuals who had substance-related disorders, who had received psychiatric medications, or who had first- or second-degree relatives with psychiatric disorders. Genotyping was performed using the Affymetrix Genome-Wide Human SNP Array 6.0. The rs2952768 SNP close to the METTL21A gene was extracted from this dataset. Multiple linear regression analysis was performed to compare intellectual ability among rs2952768 SNP genotypes. Results: A significant effect of the SNP genotype was observed on current IQ (β = -2.27, p = 0.026). The number of non-risk major C allele for drug and alcohol dependence was correlated with higher IQ scores. Conclusion: The present results suggest that the rs2952768 SNP, which was identified as a potent SNP associated with human opioid sensitivity, is also one of the genetic factors that contribute to human intellectual ability.

Associations between cortical thickness and general intelligence in children, adolescents and young adults

Neuroimaging research indicates that human intellectual ability is related to brain structure including the thickness of the cerebral cortex. Most studies indicate that general intelligence is positively associated with cortical thickness in areas of association cortex distributed throughout both brain hemispheres. In this study, we performed a cortical thickness mapping analysis on data from 182 healthy typically developing males and females ages 9 to 24years to identify correlates of general intelligence (g) scores. To determine if these correlates also mediate associations of specific cognitive abilities with cortical thickness, we regressed specific cognitive test scores on g scores and analyzed the residuals with respect to cortical thickness. The effect of age on the association between cortical thickness and intelligence was examined. We found a widely distributed pattern of positive associations between cortical thickness and g scores, as derived from the first unrotated principal factor of a factor analysis of Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) subtest scores. After WASI specific cognitive subtest scores were regressed on g factor scores, the residual score variances did not correlate significantly with cortical thickness in the full sample with age covaried. When participants were grouped at the age median, significant positive associations of cortical thickness were obtained in the older group for g-residualized scores on Block Design (a measure of visual-motor integrative processing) while significant negative associations of cortical thickness were observed in the younger group for g-residualized Vocabulary scores. These results regarding correlates of general intelligence are concordant with the existing literature, while the findings from younger versus older subgroups have implications for future research on brain structural correlates of specific cognitive abilities, as well as the cognitive domain specificity of behavioral performance correlates of normative gray matter thinning during adolescence.

Wittgenstein on language and nature

The text begins with the analysis of two terms regarding life crucial to both Wittgenstein's early and late philosophy. These are life form and nature, specifically, human nature. Wittgenstein treats both concepts in a very specific manner, different from the traditional approach of philosophy. He also criticized philosophical attempts to attribute special characteristics to human intellectual abilities which would separate them from natural processes. A particular 'spiritual' status of epistemic and other rational powers disappears when there is an insight into their dependence on discursive practices and specific forms of life on which these powers are based. Concepts such as certainty, knowledge, or explanations do not rest on a rational foundation, that is, they do not refer to processes with particular un-natural properties. Nor can they be reduced to neuro-physiological processes, either. Instead, it is a specific grammar of their usage that makes them different from other concepts describing physical or biological processes. In that sense, Wittgenstein develops a non-reductionist version of naturalism which preserves the diversity of human relations in the world.

Reason, Faith, and Obedience

Reason, Faith, and Obedience Thomas G. Weinandy OFM, Cap (bio) I. Truth: Binding the Will to the Intellect Certain problems emerge when we consider the relationship between reason, faith, and obedience. At first glance, the need for reason and faith to be related may be self-evident even if the exact manner in which they are to be related may require considerable thought. What may not be so evident is why and how obedience figures into this equation. Reason and faith are ordered to knowledge—what is known through our natural human faculties or what is to be believed because of divine revelation. Thus, reason and faith pertain to our human intellectual ability to know. Obedience, by contrast, relates not to the intellect but to the will—the free submission of the will to some superior authority. What, then, unites the knowable content that pertains to the intellectual activity of reason and faith and the will’s obedient submission to some superior authority? The answer to this question is simple: truth.1 Our human intellect is ordered to and finds its fulfillment in coming to know the truth, either through our reason or through divine revelation, and our will finds its fulfillment in freely submitting itself, in obedience, to the truth known by the intellect either [End Page 133] through reason or through faith. Here, there is primacy of our intellect in that our will subordinates itself to the intellect; that is, the truth known by our intellect compels our will to submit in obedience to the known truth. Truth, then, binds our will to our intellect for our will obediently acknowledges and submits to the truth that our intellect places before it. II. Love: Binding the Intellect to the Will However, the reverse is also the case in that our intellect is subordinate to our will. Our will is ordered to the truth in that it loves to submit itself to the known truth. Thus, our will arouses within our intellect a love for the truth, and it is this love of the truth that compels and guides our intellect to order itself properly in our search for the truth. Here our will, with its love for the truth, holds primacy: love binds our intellect to our will so that the love generated by our will compels our intellect to seek the truth in love. The circle is closed when our intellect, having been aroused by our will, lovingly finds the truth and presents this truth to our will to elicit, in turn, its obedient loving submission to the truth. Thus, we, as human persons, love the truth in that we find our perfection in knowing the truth. Furthermore, we love the truth in that we find our perfection in freely submitting ourselves in obedience to the truth. It is this twofold love of the truth, through our intellect’s ability to know the truth and through our will’s ability to submit freely in obedience to the truth, that progressively perfects us by fashioning us into what we are truly meant to be—beings who lovingly know the truth and so lovingly obey the truth. St. Bonaventure states: “Again, a hatred of falsehood is implanted in the soul. But every hatred takes its origin in love. Therefore, the love of the truth is even more firmly implanted in the soul; and this is especially true with reference to that truth in whose likeness the soul is made.”2 The ultimate truth that is known in love and freely obeyed in love, and thus the truth through which we, as [End Page 134] human persons, come to complete perfection, is, as Bonaventure intimates, the truth of the Triune God—the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Pope John Paul II beautifully summarized all of the above right at the onset of his encyclical, Fides et ratio: “Faith and reason are like two wings on which the human spirit rises to the contemplation of truth; and God has placed in the human heart a desire to know the truth—in a word, to know himself—so that, by knowing and loving God, men and women may also come to...

Mutations in the Small GTPase Gene RAB39B Are Responsible for X-linked Mental Retardation Associated with Autism, Epilepsy, and Macrocephaly

Human Mental Retardation (MR) is a common and highly heterogeneous pediatric disorder affecting around 3% of the general population; at least 215 X-linked MR (XLMR) conditions have been described, and mutations have been identified in 83 different genes, encoding proteins with a variety of function, such as chromatin remodeling, synaptic function, and intracellular trafficking. The small GTPases of the RAB family, which play an essential role in intracellular vesicular trafficking, have been shown to be involved in MR. We report here the identification of mutations in the small GTPase RAB39B gene in two male patients. One mutation in family X (D-23) introduced a stop codon seven amino acids after the start codon (c.21C > A; p.Y7X). A second mutation, in the MRX72 family, altered the 5' splice site (c.215+1G > A) and normal splicing. Neither instance produced a protein. Mutations segregate with the disease in the families, and in some family members intellectual disabilities were associated with autism spectrum disorder, epileptic seizures, and macrocephaly. We show that RAB39B, a novel RAB GTPase of unknown function, is a neuronal-specific protein that is localized to the Golgi compartment. Its downregulation leads to an alteration in the number and morphology of neurite growth cones and a significant reduction in presynaptic buttons, suggesting that RAB39B is required for synapse formation and maintenance. Our results demonstrate developmental and functional neuronal alteration as a consequence of downregulation of RAB39B and emphasize the critical role of vesicular trafficking in the development of neurons and human intellectual abilities.

Androgen-promoted traits and intellectual abilities and interests

Androgens affect many physical traits, especially ones having to do with muscularity, voice timber, and hair growth. The present study was undertaken to assess the influence of androgens on human intellectual abilities and interests. A large sample of North American college students self-assessed their intelligence, academic interests, grade point averages, and achievement test scores. These traits were compared to scores on eight androgen-influenced traits. Numerous modest but statistically significant relationships were found between androgen-promoted physical traits and self-reported intelligence, especially among males. However, virtually no significant correlations were found between these androgen-promoted traits and grades, class rank, or ACT/SAT scores. Regarding academic interests, significant positive associations with androgen-promoted traits were found, with the strongest links involving the natural sciences and mathematics. This study suggests that androgens influence intelligence, but that they primarily do so by impacting intellectual interests in the physical environment and mathematical reasoning.

Cognitive plasticity in adulthood and old age: Gauging the generality of cognitive intervention effects

Interventions enabling aging individuals to fulfill their plastic potential promise to postpone, attenuate, or even reverse the adverse effects of senescent brain changes on cognitive abilities and everyday competence in old age. Based on an overview of the concept of plasticity in lifespan development, we selectively review evidence from cognitive intervention studies and conclude that most of them have failed to observe generalizable performance improvements, as documented by the small size and scope of positive transfer to untrained tasks. We further note that generally accepted criteria for defining transfer distance are lacking, rendering the relevant evidence difficult to interpret. Hence, we propose a taxonomy of transfer distance based on the structure of human intellectual abilities.

About the neglected auditory abilities within psychological tests of intelligence

Auditory abilities play an important role in human intellectual abilities. In his model of human cognitive abilities Carroll (1993) identified a separate domain of auditory ability. Despite their theoretical and practical relevance, these abilities were mainly excluded in psychological tests. In order to compensate for this lack we developed a test which is intended to complement existing intelligence tests. To measure general auditory abilities already existing materials (Stankov and Horn, 1980) were used along with newly developed auditory tasks. Our test includes nonverbal tasks containing only tones as well as auditory textual tasks using spoken words. We expect that the auditory tasks measure a separate ability and therefore can make an important contribution to complement already existing intelligence tests. To demonstrate that the test is able to measure different aspects of auditory abilites pure tone tasks should be distinguishable from auditory textual tasks. 120 subjects worked on the auditory test as well as on a well-established test of intelligence (Test for the Berlin Intelligence Structure Model, BIS-4; Jger, S & Beauducel, 1997) which operates with written, numerical and figural material. Main results of our study are reported and implications for future research concerning psychological ability tests are discussed.

From the ape's dilemma to the weanling's dilemma: early weaning and its evolutionary context

Although humans have a longer period of infant dependency than other hominoids, human infants, in natural fertility societies, are weaned far earlier than any of the great apes: chimps and orangutans wean, on average, at about 5 and 7.7 years, respectively, while humans wean, on average, at about 2.5 years. Assuming that living great apes demonstrate the ancestral weaning pattern, modern humans display a derived pattern that requires explanation, particularly since earlier weaning may result in significant hazards for a child. Clearly, if selection had favored the survival of the child, humans would wean later like other hominoids; selection, then, favored some trait other than the child's survival. It is argued here that our unique pattern of prolonged, early brain growth—the neurological basis for human intellectual ability—cannot be sustained much beyond one year by a human mother's milk alone, and thus early weaning, when accompanied by supplementation with more nutritious adult foods, is vital to the ontogeny of our larger brain, despite the associated dangers. Therefore, the child's intellectual development, rather than its survival, is the primary focus of selection. Consumption of more nutritious foods—derived from animal protein—increased by ca. 2.6 myr ago when a group of early hominins displayed two important behavioral shifts relative to ancestral forms: the recognition that a carcass represented a new and valuable food source—potentially larger than the usual hunted prey—and the use of stone tools to improve access to that food source. The shift in the hominin “prey image” to the carcass and the use of tools for butchery increased the amount of protein and calories available, irrespective of the local landscape. However, this shift brought hominins into competition with carnivores, increasing mortality among young adults and necessitating a number of social responses, such as alloparenting. The increased acquisition of meat ca. 2.6 Ma had significant effects on the later course of human evolution and may have initiated the origin of the genus Homo.