Human-horse Relationship Research Articles

The role of associative and non-associative learning in the training of horses and implications for the welfare (a review).

Horses were domesticated 6000 years ago and since then different types of approaches have been developed to enhance the horse's wellbeing and the human-horse relationship. Even though horse training is an increasingly important research area and many articles have been published on the subject, equitation is still the sport with the highest rate of human injuries, and a significant percentage of horses are sold or slaughtered due to behavioral problems. One explanation for this data is that the human-horse relationship is complex and the communication between humans and horses has not yet been accurately developed. Thus, this review addresses correct horse training based on scientific knowledge in animal learning and psychology. Specifically, it starts from the basic communication between humans and horses and then focuses on associative and non-associative learning, with many practical outcomes in horse management from the ground and under saddle. Finally, it highlights the common mistakes in the use of negative reinforcement, as well as all the implications that improper training could have on horse welfare. Increased levels of competence in horse training could be useful for equine technicians, owners, breeders, veterinarians, and scientists, in order to safeguard horse welfare, and also to reduce the number of human injuries and economic loss for civil society and the public health system.

My Horse Is My Therapist: The Medicalization of Pleasure among Women Equestrians.

Pink t-shirts that proclaim "My horse is my therapist" are for sale in a wide variety of horse-sport catalogues. Literature on the healing power of human-nonhuman animal encounters and the practice of a variety of animal-assisted therapy programs, such as hippotherapy and equine-facilitated therapy, show dramatic growth over the last 30 years. Less attention is paid to the role that horse-human interactions may play in more popular accountings of well-being and impairment among a sample of everyday riders. Analysis of 50 lifecycle narratives, collected from accomplished but nonprofessional equestriennes, demonstrates the complex and ambiguous ways in which women draw from their experience of human-horse relationships as they challenge and transgress the borderlands between pleasure and impairment. Combining the perspectives of multispecies ethnography and medical anthropology that engages the complexities of well-being, analysis is informed by and contributes to recent controversies concerning the medicalization of normality and pleasure in DSM 5.

Human-animal Relationship Assessment in Horses (Equus caballus) with Different Uses

Several researchers using different behavioural tests assessed the behavioral responses of adult horses toward humans. According to the results of the current scientific research, understanding and improving the quality of human-horse relationship can lead to many benefits for both humans and horses. The aim of the study was to assess comparatively the human-animal relationship in groups of horses with different uses, in order to reveal if significant differences can be found depending on the type of their activity. A total number of 128 adult horses were assessed (mares, stallions and geldings) in several locations, used for working, equitation and reproduction. Three simple behavioural tests were employed (the voluntary approach test, the avoidance distance measuring and the ability to touch the horse including the measuring of its tolerance for human physical contact) to assess the human-horse relationship. The results were statistically processed and interpreted. After comparing the results, statistically significant differences were found in the quality of the human-horse relationship in horses used for different activities. Comparing the results for several horse categories from the same facility (where it was possible) and used for the same type of purpose, the differences were not statistically significant. As the results of the present study show, the human-horse relation can show significant differences depending on the use of the horses, most probably because the differences in the type of their previous experiences with humans. Improving the quality of the human-horse relationship can lead to a higher level of human safety when working with these animals

Blogging situated emotions in human–horse relationships

In contemporary equestrian culture, individual human–horse relationships are often based on communication, knowing each other, and doing things together. Through shared experiences and activities in everyday life, the relationship can be seen as a process of becoming with the significant other, in which both human and horse are eventually transformed. In this article, I discuss Finnish horse owner's blogs, from 2009 to 2012, as narrative performances of situated human–horse relationships, as interpreted by the writer and expressed in a way that both reflects the material reality of the relationship and follows the culturally shared idea of living with a horse. I ask how emotions and experiences are shared between the human and the horse, and how challenges and conflicts are experienced and managed relative to their spatial context. According to the analysis of the blogs, human–horse relationships are performed as narratives of shared emotional and embodied experiences situated in places that carry specific meanings. The rules regulating both the emotions felt toward the horse and their display affect the ways in which the horse's actions and emotions are interpreted differently in each place. Thus, place comes to be part of how the relationship is constructed.

Horse as Significant Other

This essay examines Susan Richards’s memoir Chosen by a Horse: How a Broken Horse Fixed a Broken Heart (2006) by focusing on its affective representation of the human-horse relationship. The discussion shows how the story of the mare Lay Me Down in Richard’s work is intricately linked with the narrator’s changing identity. It contends that this relationship, represented in the text by the use of a discourse of healing and self-regeneration, seeks to reconstruct the traumatized autobiographical subject and negotiate her identity. The close bond with between the narrator and the ailing horse shows that the two participants are involved in a joint process of identity transformation, described by Donna Haraway (2008) as becoming with another species. The essay will also suggest that the affective representation of the horse and its significance to the self-transformation of the traumatized autobiographical narrator is also part of the therapeutic discourse of contemporary American culture.

Could it be colic? Horse-owner decision making and practices in response to equine colic.

BackgroundLittle is known about lay understanding and decision making in response to colic. Horse-owners/carers are key to identifying colic and initiating veterinary intervention. Understanding how owners think and act in relation to colic could assist veterinary surgeons in tailoring information about colic with the aim of improving colic outcomes.MethodsA mixed methods approach was employed including qualitative in-depth interviews and a cross-sectional questionnaire. Qualitative data were analysed using Grounded theory to conceptualise processes involved in horse-owner management of colic. Following this, a cross-sectional survey was designed to test these concepts. Cluster analysis explored the role of the human-horse relationship upon colic management strategies.ResultsFifteen horse-owners with a range of colic experience participated in the interviews. A theoretical conceptual model was developed and described how horse-owners’ recognised, assessed and responded to colic. Three main management strategies were used including ‘wait and see’, ‘lay treatments’ and ‘seek veterinary assistance’. Actions in response to colic were moderated by owners’ experience of colic and interpretation of the severity of colic signs. A postal questionnaire gathered data from 673 horse-owners from the North-West of the UK. The majority (605, 89.9%) of respondents were female. Cluster analysis revealed 5 meaningful groups of horse-owners based upon assessment of questionnaire items on the human-horse relationship. These groups included 2 professional and 3 amateur owner typologies. There were differences in the responses to some questionnaire items among the identified groups.ConclusionsThis study describes lay understanding and management of colic among a population of horse-owners from the North-West of the UK. The information may serve as a basis upon which to tailor existing programmes designed to educate owners about colic management strategies, and may inform veterinarians’ interactions with horse-owners.

Visual attention, an indicator of human-animal relationships? A study of domestic horses (Equus caballus)

As visual attention is an intrinsic part of social relationships, and because relationships are built on a succession of interactions, their establishment involves learning and attention. The emotional, rewarding or punishing, content can modulate selective attention. In horses, the use of positive/negative reinforcement during training determines short and long-term human-horse relationships. In a recent study in horses, where either food or withers' grooming were used as a reward, it appeared that only the food-rewarded horses learned the task and show better relationship with humans. In the present study, we hypothesized that this differential effect of grooming/food rewards on learning performances could be due to attentional processes. Monitoring, gazes and behaviors directed towards the trainer revealed that the use of a food reward (FR) as positive reinforcement increased horses' selective attention towards their trainer. Conversely, horses trained with grooming reward (GR) expressed more inattentive responses and did not show a decrease of “agitated” behavior. However, individual plotting of attention vs. rate of learning performances revealed a complex pattern. Thus, while all FR horses showed a “window” of attention related to faster learning performances, GR horses' pattern followed an almost normal curve where the extreme animals (i.e., highest and lowest attention) had the slowest learning performances. On the other hand, learning was influenced by attention: at the end of training, the more attentive horses had also better learning performances. This study, based on horses, contributes to the general debate on the place of attentional processes at the interface of emotion and cognition and opens new lines of thought about individual sensitivities (only individuals can tell what an appropriate reward is), attentional processes and learning.

Over-riding concerns

Equestrian sports are unavoidably interspecies and undeniably dangerous. Whilst there has been qualitative research into the human–horse relationship, and quantitative research into horse riding, injury and risk, there remains a need to understand how risk perception and experience is subjectively implicated in, through and by the human–horse relationship, and vice versa. Doing so requires reconciling animal studies with risk theory. As a high-risk interspecies sport, eventing provides an exemplar case study for critiquing, extending and reconciling posthumanism and risk theorisation. This paper draws from interviews with 21 participants of the high-risk equestrian sport of eventing to explore the mutual benefits of using ‘risk’ as a point d’entrée for analysing human–horse relations. Findings were largely consistent with three popular theories of voluntary risk-taking: edgework, flow and sensation-seeking. However, the involvement of an animal – the horse – stimulates a critical reconsideration of internal/external ‘control’; identifies a role for flow as risk mitigation/safety; and suggests that edge workers in high-risk interspecies sports do not just confront edges – they cross them. This paper thus distinguishes interspecies sports as a distinct and productive field of interdisciplinary research. It proposes further mixed-methods research that is required to more fully evaluate the usefulness of existing risk theory for understanding participant experiences of high-risk interspecies sports.

Co-being and intra-action in horse-human relationships: a multi-species ethnography of be(com)ing human and be(com)ing horse

A multi‐species perspective identifies and offers ethnographic insight into a variety of everyday, practical experiences and the roles they may play in shaping human–horse relationships. Analysis of narrative data from 60 open‐ended interviews with a wide variety of riders in Norway and the Midwestern USA identifies three central themes of co‐being. These are expressed, felt and voiced as embodied moments of mutuality, engagements of two agentive individuals and as a kind of anthropo‐zoo‐genetic practice, where species domesticate each other through being together. Co‐being as intra‐acting describes how horse and human meet and change as a result of their meeting. © 2013 European Association of Social Anthropologists.

A better knowledge of horse behavior for a better management

Ethology of horses in natural and domestic situations, has brought a solid basis for thoughts on the best possible management conditions for this species. The behavioral repertoire of domestic species is not fundamentally different from that observed in their wild or feral counterparts, although the frequency or quality of behaviors may differ. On the basis of the current ethological knowledge of the horses’ life in natural conditions, we question the conditions offered to horses in the domestic situation and their consequences on their behavior. Feeding rhythms, social life and space are key elements which, if altered, may be a source of physiological and behavioral disorders. The human-horse relationship, a specific characteristic of the domestic situation needs to also be examined. Recent studies (some of which multidimensional: behavior, physiology, health), performed on key populations of domestic horses, give an overview of the current situation which may suggest some postural and behavioral indicators that may help detect altered horse welfare. Solutions and recommendations proposed should take into account the daily human constraints in the facilities.

Approach and follow behaviour – possible indicators of the human–horse relationship

The aim of our study was to analyze the behavioural responses of horses (N = 51) to familiar humans and to find factors that may affect these responses in three tests: (1) approach to, (2) standing beside, and (3) following the familiar person. We investigated the impacts of horse-related factors (gender and age) and human-related factors (type of work, housing management, amount of handling, number of handlers and training to follow). Horses with one handler needed less time to approach the human than horses with more handlers. Standing beside the human correlated positively with following. Following was mainly affected by training. According to our results, the number of handlers has an important effect on horses’ responses to familiar humans, especially regarding approach and follow behaviour. However, following behaviour is fundamentally determined by training. Keywords: human–horse interaction; approach; follow

Corrigendum to “A preliminary study of the effects of handling type on horses’ emotional reactivity and the human–horse relationship” [Behav. Process. (2009) 82, 202–210

Corrigendum to “A preliminary study of the effects of handling type on horses’ emotional reactivity and the human–horse relationship” [Behav. Process. (2009) 82, 202–210

A preliminary study of the effects of handling type on horses’ emotional reactivity and the human–horse relationship

Handling is a crucial component of the human-horse relationship. Here, we report data from an experiment conducted to assess and compare the effect of two training methods. Two groups of six Welsh mares were trained during four sessions of 50 min, one handled with traditional exercises (halter leading, grooming/brushing, lifting feet, lunging and pseudo-saddling (using only girth and saddle pad) and the second group with natural horsemanship exercises (desensitization, yielding to body pressure, lunging and free-lunging). Emotional reactivity (ER) and the human-horse relationship (HHR) were assessed both prior to and following handling. A social isolation test, a neophobia test and a bridge test were used to assess ER. HHR was assessed through test of spontaneous approach to, and forced approach by, an unknown human. Horses' ER decreased after both types of handling as indicated by decreases in the occurrence of whinnying during stressful situations. Head movement (jerk/shake) was the most sensitive variable to handling type. In the spontaneous approach tests, horses in the traditional handling group showed higher latencies to approach a motionless person after handling than did the natural horsemanship group. Our study suggests that natural horsemanship exercises could be more efficient than traditional exercises for improving horses' HHR.

Human facial discrimination in horses: can they tell us apart?

The human-horse relationship has a long evolutionary history. Horses continue to play a pivotal role in the lives of humans and it is common for humans to think their horses recognize them by face. If a horse can distinguish his/her human companion from other humans, then evolution has supplied the horse with a very adaptive cognitive ability. The current study used operant conditioning trials to examine whether horses could discriminate photographed human faces and transfer this facial recognition ability a novel setting. The results indicated the horses (a) learned to discriminate photographs of the unrelated individuals, fraternal twins, and identical twins and (b) demonstrated transfer of facial recognition by spending more time with their S+ woman in the field test.

Mutual corporeality: Gender and human/horse relationships

Synopsis In this article, we explore how gender is enacted within human/animal relationships – specifically, between people and horses. Horse cultures can be gendered in several ways, from little girls and their ponies to modern versions of the cowboy. Here, we examine two specific horse/human cultures – traditional “English” riding, and the rise of what is often termed “natural horsemanship” (despite the preponderance of women within it). Horses themselves, however, play an important role in the way that horsey cultures become experienced as gendered. We examine this in relation to Paechter's [Paechter, Carrie (2003). Masculinities and femininities as communities of practice. Women's Studies International Forum 26, 69–77] idea of “communities of practice”, arguing that the presence and meanings of the animal within particular communities – as well as the human practices – together shape how people experience gender. The presence of horses enables a subversion of dominant gender practices particularly at the localized (private) level, while at the same time enables a reinscription of traditional gender ideals at the global (public) level. Gender is experienced and expressed through the body; but, in human–horse relationships it is also expressed in conjunction with the body and character of the horse. Horses are not mere props, but rather they are companions who have a profound impact on people's lived experience of gender and how it is expressed corporeally. Continuing to explore the multiple ways gender is experienced within the context of human/animal relationships promises to offer greater insight into the complex workings of gender.

Comparison of the effects of two different handling methods on the subsequent behaviour of Anglo-Arabian foals toward humans and handling

Tactile contact is often used to improve the human–foal relationship, in particular during sensitive periods such as weaning. However, the method used to provide the contact (forced or unforced) may affect subsequent reactions to humans. The aim of our study was to compare the effect of forced and unforced handling at weaning on horses’ behaviour towards humans and handling. A total of 23 Anglo-Arabian foals received individual human contact at weaning. Constrained-handled foals (forced human contact; FC, n = 8) were stroked while being restrained (i.e., held by the halter without being led) so that human contact was forced. Unconstrained-handled foals (unforced human contact; UC, n = 7) were stroked without any restraint and could thus avoid contact if they so wanted. Each individual was handled 5 min twice a day for 14 consecutive days. Control foals were not handled (no contact; NC, n = 8). Foals’ reactions towards a human (e.g. proximity and contact seeking), and their manageability (fitting of a halter) were then assessed. The animals from the different treatments were then mixed and tested again 4 months later. Non-parametric Mann–Whitney U-tests were used to compare experimental groups. Only forced human contact reduced fear reactions toward humans (e.g. shorter latency to approach a passive human, P < 0.01; shorter latency to touch the foal, P < 0.05) in the short-term (immediately after the handling sessions) and increased foals’ manageability in a familiar environment (shorter latency to be placed a halter on and less defences displayed, P < 0.05). It had no effect in an unfamiliar environment. These effects did not last longer than 4 months. Forced human contact thus appears to be more efficient in improving human–horse relationships and subsequent handling than unforced human contact. However, the lack of effect on reactivity towards humans in an unfamiliar environment, and the lack of long-term effects suggest that this method needs to be improved to be more effective. Some of our results suggest that horses could perceive human contact (i.e., stroking) as positive, however further studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis.

Equines and their human companions

Previous research related to marketing describes deep emotional bonds that develop between humans and their pets (primarily cats and dogs). Another multi-billion-dollar international market that needs exploration flows from the highly-involving bonds between humans and their horses. Horses are not pets, but the study of equine relationships with humans generates insights into animal-companion interactions. This article reports results of an interpretive phenomenological investigation of the relationship between humans and their horses, using participant observations, in-depth interviews, and written open-ended questions including the critical-incident technique. Analysis of the data first addresses a priori themes from the animal-companionship literature and identifies themes found, themes with a twist, and themes not found. The article then discusses seven emergent themes unique to human–horse relationships — including physicality, partnership, bonding through adversity, flow experience, communitas, spirituality, and life lessons.

Equine learning behaviour: accounting for ecological constraints and relationships with humans in experimental design

Murphy and Arkins (2007) present a broad and interestingreview which highlights our incomplete understanding of theidiosyncrasies of equine learning. Most studies of learning inhorseshaveadaptedgeneralexperimentalparadigmstocompareequine cognitive abilities with those of other species (McCall,1990). As a result much of their review explores cross-speciescomparisons and previous attempts to place horses in a hierar-chy of intelligence. Macphail (1996) argues that comparisonsof performance on any given learning task are likely to be con-founded by non-cognitive or ‘contextual’ species differences inmotivation, attention and physical ability. Murphy and Arkins(2007) themselves describe how individual variation and poorcorrelation between performance on different tasks cast doubton the appropriateness of this approach. They also highlightthe impact of experimental design on test outcome, which isespecially pertinent given the applied nature of much equineresearch. The ultimate objective of any experiment will influ-ence its design and a number of the studies reviewed aimedto use learning tests to assess animals’ suitability for training.Murphy and Arkins’ (2007) goal is the application of learningresearch to maximise the potential benefits of the human–horserelationship to both parties. We would suggest that future stud-ies could best achieve this by focusing on the development ofunambiguous, horse-specific tests that combine rigorous sci-entific method with an appreciation of horses’ evolutionaryhistory, ecological niche and current management. Tailoringtests to species gives us greater confidence in their conclusions.Backedbybiologicallyrelevantexperimentsthatrobustlyreflectequine cognitive and learning abilities, we are better placedto unravel the sources of variation both within and betweenspecies.

Equine learning behaviour

Scientists and equestrians continually seek to achieve a clearer understanding of equine learning behaviour and its implications for training. Behavioural and learning processes in the horse are likely to influence not only equine athletic success but also the usefulness of the horse as a domesticated species. However given the status and commercial importance of the animal, equine learning behaviour has received only limited investigation. Indeed most experimental studies on equine cognitive function to date have addressed behaviour, learning and conceptualization processes at a moderately basic cognitive level compared to studies in other species. It is however, likely that the horses with the greatest ability to learn and form/understand concepts are those, which are better equipped to succeed in terms of the human-horse relationship and the contemporary training environment. Within equitation generally, interpretation of the behavioural processes and training of the desired responses in the horse are normally attempted using negative reinforcement strategies. On the other hand, experimental designs to actually induce and/or measure equine learning rely almost exclusively on primary positive reinforcement regimes. Employing two such different approaches may complicate interpretation and lead to difficulties in identifying problematic or undesirable behaviours in the horse. The visual system provides the horse with direct access to immediate environmental stimuli that affect behaviour but vision in the horse is of yet not fully investigated or understood. Further investigations of the equine visual system will benefit our understanding of equine perception, cognitive function and the subsequent link with learning and training. More detailed comparative investigations of feral or free-ranging and domestic horses may provide useful evidence of attention, stress and motivational issues affecting behavioural and learning processes in the horse. The challenge for scientists is, as always, to design and commission experiments that will investigate and provide insight into these processes in a manner that withstands scientific scrutiny.

The human-horse relationship: how much do we know?

Human relationships or interactions with horses have varied throughout history depending on human needs, but it is horses' ability to carry a human individual that has had perhaps the greatest impact on their relationship with man. Despite our long association with the horse, there have been few studies on human-horse relationships. There is little historical evidence on individual relationships with horses but indications of strong human-horse relationships have been noted in mounted societies, such as North American Plains Indians. Riding a horse has traditionally been associated with power, and was reserved for the ruling elite in many areas. Demographic data suggest that human relationships with horses may have changed in recent times. Although the lack of land and the relatively high cost of horse care may reduce the possibility of ownership for many people, the availability of riding establishments and increases in leisure time mean that riding is no longer restricted to the upper classes. There is a wide range in type and intensity of potential interactions with horses, indicating that human-horse relationships are likely to vary considerably. Some people appear to sacrifice a great deal in order to own a horse. However, the motivation behind these activities and the process by which an individual assesses personal costs of ownership versus their perceived benefits remains to be studied. Future research should focus on characterising the human-horse relationship, and the degree of individual and cultural variation. A greater understanding of horse owner perceptions of 'costs' versus 'benefits' may also increase our understanding of the relationship and the economic importance of horses in society.