Human Fossil Research Articles

Quantifying the relationship between bone and soft tissue measures within the rhesus macaques of Cayo Santiago.

Interpretations of the primate and human fossil record often rely on the estimation of somatic dimensions from bony measures. Both somatic and skeletal variation have been used to assess how primates respond to environmental change. However, it is unclear how well skeletal variation matches and predicts soft tissue. Here, we empirically test the relationship between tissues by comparing somatic and skeletal measures using paired measures of pre- and post-mortem rhesus macaques from Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico. Somatic measurements were matched with skeletal dimensions from 105 rhesus macaque individuals to investigate paired signals of variation (i.e., coefficients of variation, sexual dimorphism) and bivariate codependence (reduced major axis regression) in measures of: (1) limb length; (2) joint breadth; and (3) limb circumference. Predictive models for the estimation of soft tissue dimensions from skeletons were built from Ordinary Least Squares regressions. Somatic and skeletal measurements showed statistically equivalent coefficients of variation and sexual dimorphism as well as high epiphyses-present ordinary least square (OLS) correlations in limb lengths (R2 >0.78, 0.82), joint breadths (R2 >0.74, 0.83) and, to a lesser extent, limb circumference (R2 >0.53, 0.68). Skeletal measurements are good substitutions for somatic values based on population signals of variation. OLS regressions indicate that skeletal correlates are highly predictive of somatic dimensions. The protocols and regression equations established here provide a basis for reliable reconstruction of somatic dimension from catarrhine fossils and validate our ability to compare or combine results of studies based on population data of either hard or soft tissue proxies.

Reconstructing the environmental conditions experienced by early modern humans at Tam Pà Ling (northeast Laos) using higher plant wax biomarkers

The sediments of Tam Pà Ling (TPL), northeastern Laos, have yielded the earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in mainland Southeast Asia (∼86 ka; marine isotope stage (MIS) 5 b) with a number of skeletal elements having been recovered from the sequence attesting to two populations of H. sapiens present in the vicinity between 77 ± 9 ka to 39 ± 9 ka. At present there has been very limited research into the environmental conditions that these populations encountered during MIS 5–4. In this study, we present the results of an analysis of higher plant biomarkers (n-alkanes and n-alkanols) from the sediments at TPL to reconstruct the palaeovegetation of the site and the human fossils. The n-alkane δ13C values demonstrate that H. sapiens encountered a predominantly C3 forest landscape in MIS 5 b-MIS 4 that prevailed until MIS 1. Observations of a fluctuation in δ13C values across MIS 5 b-MIS 1 (∼86–3 ka) indicates that moisture availability was non-uniform, most likely resulting in landscape changes in and around TPL. The presence of H. sapiens at TPL during the environmental conditions associated with MIS 5 b-MIS 3 highlights the adaptability of our species to environmental dynamics at this time.

Crystallographic Study of Vertebrate Fossils from The Central Narmada Valley, India.

The Narmada River originates in eastern Madhya Pradesh near Amarkantak (200 40' N, 81 46' E), travels through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat before emptying into the Gulf of Cambay in the Arabian Sea, close to Baruch in Gujarat. Numerous fossil discoveries in the region include various mammals, reptiles, fishes, amphibians, and molluscan shells. In addition to being a rare mid-continental location in the Old World, the Narmada Valley has traditionally served as a line delineating Northern and Southern India. This valley has produced countless animal fossils as well as a few human fossils. This has been a crucial route for the movement of both faunal migrations from the north to the south and the transmission of the monsoons from the southeast to the northwest. The present work examines the crystallization index of the faunal fossils from three (Barmanghat ,Talayyaghat ,Devakachar) localities in the Central Narmada valley falling within the region of Madhya Pradesh. Fossil samples were subjected to X-Ray diffraction in order to calculate the Crystallization index as a direct indicator of the degree of fossilization. The materials of Narmada river valley have been studied extensively by previous scholars; however, this study is first attempt to study the fossils using scientific technique such as XRD.

Current paleoanthropology and paleoarchaeology in the museums of Poland in the tourism context. Invisible heritage?

The heritage of prehistory, in the fields of both palaeoanthropology and palaeoarchaeology, constitutes a huge physical and interpretative resource, even though the majority of artefacts have never left museum storage rooms. The current significant development in research into human fossils does lead to considerations about the current ways of exhibiting museum collections regarding this kind of heritage. In Poland, artefacts of prehistory, including human fossils, are distributed between different kinds of museums ‒ historical, archaeological, natural history, and geological ones, as well as museums belonging to universities and scientific institutes. None of them builds their brand based on palaeoanthropological artefacts. Moreover, since the excavations have stopped, the sites of discoveries of that kind remain illegible to the general public due to the lack of on-site markers and appropriate educational tourist facilities. All these facts together underline the problem of limited visibility of the recent discoveries and palaeoanthropological and palaeoarchaeological heritage in the Polish museum and tourist market.

Biomechanical and taxonomic diversity in the Early Pleistocene in East Africa: Structural analysis of a recently discovered femur shaft from Olduvai Gorge (bed I)

Recent Plio-Pleistocene hominin findings have revealed the complexity of human evolutionary history and the difficulties involved in its interpretation. Moreover, the study of hominin long bone remains is particularly problematic, since it commonly depends on the analysis of fragmentary skeletal elements that in many cases are merely represented by small diaphyseal portions and appear in an isolated fashion in the fossil record. Nevertheless, the study of the postcranial skeleton is particularly important to ascertain locomotor patterns. Here we report on the discovery of a robust hominin femoral fragment (OH 84) at the site of Amin Mturi Korongo dated to 1.84 Ma (Olduvai Bed I). External anatomy and internal bone structure of OH 84 were analyzed and compared with previously published data for modern humans and chimpanzees, as well as for Australopithecus, Paranthropus and Homo specimens ranging from the Late Pliocene to Late Pleistocene. Biomechanical analyses based on transverse cross-sections and the comparison of OH 84 with another robust Olduvai specimen (OH 80) suggest that OH 84 might be tentatively allocated to Paranthropus boisei. More importantly, the identification of a unique combination of traits in OH 84 could indicate both terrestrial bipedalism and an arboreal component in the locomotor repertoire of this individual. If interpreted correctly, OH 84 could thus add to the already mounting evidence of substantial locomotor diversity among Early Pleistocene hominins. Likewise, our results also highlight the difficulties in accurately interpreting the link between form and function in the human fossil record based on fragmentary remains, and ultimately in distinguishing between coeval hominin groups due to the heterogeneous pattern of inter- and intraspecific morphological variability detected among fossil femora.

3D model related to the publication: On Roth's "human fossil" from Baradero, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina: morphological and genetic analysis

3D model related to the publication: On Roth's "human fossil" from Baradero, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina: morphological and genetic analysis

On Roth’s “human fossil” from Baradero, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina: morphological and genetic analysis

The “human fossil” from Baradero, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, is a collection of skeleton parts first recovered by the paleontologist Santiago Roth and further studied by the anthropologist Rudolf Martin. By the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century it was considered one of the oldest human skeletons from South America's southern cone. Here, we present the results of an interdisciplinary approach to study and contextualize the ancient individual remains. We discuss the context of the finding by first compiling the available evidence associated with the historical information and any previous scientific publications on this individual. Then, we conducted an osteobiographical assessment, by which we evaluated the sex, age, and overall preservation of the skeleton based on morphological features. To obtain a 3D virtual reconstruction of the skull, we performed high resolution CT-scans on selected skull fragments and the mandible. This was followed by the extraction of bone tissue and tooth samples for radiocarbon and genetic analyses, which brought only limited results due to poor preservation and possible contamination. We estimate that the individual from Baradero is a middle-aged adult male. We conclude that the revision of foundational collections with current methodological tools brings new insights and clarifies long held assumptions on the significance of samples that were recovered when archaeology was not yet professionalized.

Human Fossils from the First Quarter of the 21st Century

Significant discoveries have been made from the first quarter of this Century in the field of evolutionary biology to redefine the human evolution. Discoveries present the morphological variability in fossil forms and indicate the valuable role of that particular continent in tracing the human origin. This article presents a general review of the human fossils found so far of this century that force us to rethink about the current concept of human origin. Most of the fossils have been found in East Africa, South Africa, Central Africa, Russia, Israel and Indonesia. Some of these are related to Australopithecus afarensis, some to Aus. africanus while some to Neanderthal. A complete human skeleton remains has been found from Ethiopia (Middle Awash region) and named as Ardipithecus ramidus is believed to be the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. Naser Ramla from Israelis considered as an ancestor of Neanderthals because it used stone tool production technology to make tools. Some fossils share features of both Australopithecus and early Homo, such as Orrorin tugenesis and Homo naledi. Australopithecus deyremeda is considered as an extinct species of Australopithecine. Some of these are contemporary of modern humans, such as Homo florensis, whose complete skeleton has been found from the Flores island of Indonesia and it has also been considered as an Asian descendant of Homoerectus. Denisovans found in Russia's Denisova cave is considered as a new species, it belongs to the Lower Middle Palaeolithic period, so it is also considered to be related to Neanderthal, although its fossil remains include only digit bone, 4 tooth, parts of jaw and long bones and parietal part of the cranium.

Early Neolithic human remains from Galería del Sílex in Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain

We present new datings and a new anthropological study of Early Neolithic human remains found in Galería del Sílex in 1979. This gallery is part of the Cueva Mayor system in the Sierra de Atapuerca. The human fossils attributed to the Neolithic period correspond to a minimum number of three individuals that have been radiocarbon dated to the last third of the 6th millennium cal BCE. Thus, the fossils from Galería del Sílex are among the oldest Neolithic human remains in the interior of the Iberian Peninsula. The human remains from Galería del Sílex were not found within a domestic context of human occupation of the cave, but rather within two pits (simas) located more than three hundred meters from the ancient entrance. This suggests that Galería del Sílex could have been an area reserved for depositing deceased humans during the Early Neolithic. Given the scarcity of this kind of funerary cave in the Spanish northern plateau during the Early Neolithic, the data from the Galería del Sílex add to our knowledge of human mortuary behavior during this period. In addition to the Galería del Sílex, there are two other well-known Neolithic sites in Sierra de Atapuerca: El Portalón in Cueva Mayor, which was a human occupation site, and Cueva del Mirador, which was used for livestock stabling and exploitation. Considered altogether, the emerging evidence provided by these three sites makes Sierra de Atapuerca increasingly relevant as a source of information about Early Neolithic people from the interior of the Iberian Peninsula.

Evaluation of recharge estimation methods applied to fissure and karst aquifers of the Lagoa Santa Karst Environmental Protection Area, Brazil

AbstractThe Lagoa Santa Karst Environmental Protection Area is known worldwide as the place where the oldest human fossil in the Americas was found. Beyond its archaeological richness is speleological, faunistic and floristic richness across this remarkable karstic landscape. It is also a region with important aquifers for public and private water supply. Located in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, despite its environmental relevance, the area is characterized by increased anthropic environmental impacts. Regarding the relationship between surface water and groundwater, in order to investigate the annual input of water into the aquifers, this study aimed to estimate the annual recharge rate in the hydrological years 2017 to 2021 using three methods: the recession curve displacement method of Rorabaugh (International Association of Scientific Hydrology, 1964, 63:432–441), the recursive digital filter method by Lyne and Hollick (Institute of Engineers Australia National Conference, 1979, pp. 89–93), and the method based on water‐table fluctuation in tubular wells proposed by Healy and Cook (Hydrogeology Journal, 2002, 10(1):91–109). The average percentage of rainfall that is recharged into the aquifer, considering the overall period studied from 2017 to 2021, found with the three methods was 13%, 9% and 9%, respectively, which indicates that recharge rates within the study area are low and that higher values are observed within karst basins in comparison with basins located in pelitic zones. Overall, the methods yielded coherent values among each other and were compared with previous studies in the area. In relation to the automatized recursive digital filter method, the automatized recession curve displacement method was more adherent because it considers daily streamflow measurements. The WTF method was handy for the local recharge rate analysis and enabled an evaluation of recharge rates in each aquifer unit. Despite the similarity of the values obtained in the methods, they are likely underestimated due to the high pumping rates of groundwater. Furthermore, it is recommended to deepen the correlation between lithotype, karst geomorphology, and its dissolution processes to improve the understanding of recharge processes.

Uncovering the adult morphology of the forearm bones from the Sima de los Huesos Site in Atapuerca (Spain), with comments on biomechanical features.

The forearm skeleton is composed of two bones: the radius and the ulna. This is closely related to manipulative movements. The ulna is part of the elbow joint, whereas the radius and ulna together with the scaphoid and lunate bones, form the wrist joints. Thus, morphofunctional analysis of the adult Sima de los Huesos (SH) forearm bones, provides clues about manipulative activities in one Pleistocene population. From 1976 to the present, over 7000 human fossils have been recovered from the SH site. The radial sample comprised 98 labeled fragments, of which 49 belonged to adult individuals, representing at least 7 individuals. The ulnar sample included 31 labeled adult fossils representing at least nine individuals. In this study, we describe the SH radii and ulnae and analyze their functional implications for manipulative and forearm movements. We confirmed that the SH radii are long and curved, with variations in robusticity and radial tuberosity orientation. The SH ulnae are characterized by an anteriorly oriented trochlear notch, a massive olecranon process, an obliquely oriented radial notch, a blunt and short supinator crest, a gracile and curved diaphysis, and a round and anteriorly oriented pronator crests. In general, they exhibit Neanderthal morphology. The SH collection provides a unique opportunity to conduct morphological analyses of these bones in the Middle Pleistocene population.

The Earliest Paleolithic Assemblages from Denisova Cave in the Altai

The article presents the results of multidisciplinary studies of the Early Middle Paleolithic assemblages from the lower part of the Denisova Cave Pleistocene sequence in the East Chamber and the Main Chamber of the cave. Data on geochronology, small and large vertebrate fauna, palynology, stratigraphy and micromorphology of sediments containing the earliest archaeological fi nds at the site, as well as on petrography, traceology and archaeozoology are presented. We des cribe human fossils and aDNA studies based on them. These materials demonstrate that the fi rst inhabitants of the cave and those associated with the Early Middle Paleolithic traditions were Denisovans. On the basis of the collection, which includes over 35,000 artifacts, the technology and typology of the Denisova industry are reconstructed. We focus on the comparison of the Denisova Early Middle Paleolithic with chronologically closest industries of North and Central Asia. The most similar industry is the Acheulo-Yabrudian of the Near East. Parallels concern primary reduction techniques and tool types. A hypothesis explaining the appearance of Middle Paleolithic traditions in Southern Siberia is proposed. We demonstrate continuity in the evolution of the lithic industries of Denisova up to the autochthonous emergence of the Upper Paleolithic ca 50,000 years ago.

The Neanderthal patellae from Krapina (Croatia): A comparative investigation of their endostructural conformation and distinctive features compared to the extant human condition.

The Neanderthal patella differs from that of extant humans by being thicker anteroposteriorly and by having more symmetric medial and lateral articular facets. However, it is still unclear to what extent these differences affect knee kinesiology. We aim at assessing the endostructural conformation of Neanderthal patellae to reveal functionally related mechanical information comparatively to the extant human condition. In principle, we expect that the Neanderthal patella (i) shows a higher amount of cortical bone and (ii) a trabecular network organization distinct from the extant human condition. By using micro-focus X-ray tomography, we characterized the endostructure of six adult patellae from the OIS 5e Neanderthal site of Krapina, Croatia, the largest assemblage of human fossil patellae assessed so far, and compared their pattern to the configuration displayed by a sample of 22 recent humans. The first expectation is rejected, indicating that the patellar bone might have not followed the trend of generalized gracilization of the human postcranial skeleton occurred through the Upper Pleistocene. The second prediction is at least partially supported. In Krapina the trabecular network differs from the comparative sample by showing a higher medial density and by lacking a proximal reinforcement. Such conformation indicates similar load patterns exerted in Neanderthals and extant humans by the vastus lateralis, but not by the vastus medialis, with implications on the mediolateral stabilization of the knee joint. However, the patterns of structural variation of the patellar network remain to be assessed in other Neanderthal samples.

African apes and the evolutionary history of orthogrady and bipedalism

AbstractSince the first discovery of human fossils in the mid‐19th century, two subjects—our phylogenetic relationship to living and fossil apes and the ancestral locomotor behaviors preceding bipedalism—have driven the majority of discourse in the study of human origins. With few fossils and thus limited comparative evidence available to inform or constrain them, morphologists of the 19th and early mid‐20th centuries posited a range of scenarios for the evolution of bipedalism. In contrast, there exists a rich hominin fossil record and the acceptance ofPan(chimpanzees and bonobos) as our closest living relatives is nearly universal, yet consensus about the ancestral condition from which hominins evolved remains elusive. Notably, while the earliest known hominins are generally congruent with parsimonious inferences of an African ape‐like last common ancestor, our more distantly related Miocene ape cousins are frequently invoked as evidence in favor of more complex scenarios that require substantial homoplasy. Debate over these alternatives suggests that how we infer ancestral nodes and weigh evidence to test their relative likelihoods remains a stumbling block. Here we argue that a key contributor to this impasse includes the history of terminology associated with positional behavior, which has become confused over the last century. We aim to clarify positional behavior concepts and contextualize knuckle‐walking and other forms of posture and locomotion chimpanzees and gorillas engage in, while arguing that the presence of homoplasy in ape evolution does not alter the weight of evidence in favor of an African ape‐like evolutionary history of hominins.

Foundation and Frontier – Centenary Path of Dental Anthropology in China

Dental anthropology has been developed for 100 years in China. In this paper, the author reviews the articles on dental anthropology related to Chinese materials in the past one hundred years and briefly introduces the issues involved such as human evolution, and the interaction of different populations in historical periods. Results and discussion. The work of foreign scholars has been the foundation of Chinese paleoanthropology and dental anthropology since the discovery of the Hetao human teeth and the Zhoukoudian site. Since then, dental anthropology in China has gone through a phase of material accumulation, a phase of introducing the American ASUDAS in the 1990s, and a phase of prosperity in the last 30 years. The numerous discoveries and the application of new techniques have brought Chinese dental anthropology to an international level. Until now, there are more than 70 human fossil sites in China, over 60 of which contain human dental remains. Less material has been found from the early Pleistocene, and there is some controversy on whether they belong to the genus Homo. While early Middle Pleistocene Homo erectus teeth show primitiveness and some special features, the late Middle Pleistocene human teeth show greater variability, and mosaic features, and there is some controversy on whether some fossils belong to early Homo sapiens or other taxa. The Late Pleistocene human dentition is related to the question of how and when early modern human appeared in China and the evolution of early modern humans. However, due to the incompleteness of the material, the question of human origins is a matter of multidisciplinary and comprehensive interpretation. About 10 sites were studied from Neolithic to modern human dentition using the American ASUDAS. These results show the consistency of non-metric traits in teeth and skulls, display differences between northern and southern Chinese populations, and reveal the exchange between northwestern Chinese and western populations. Some of these results have been confirmed by paleogenomics. Conclusion. Anthropologists began to pay more attention to the morphology of modern human teeth. In the future, the application of new methods and the collection of modern human materials will help us better understand the evolution of ancient humans, population interaction.

Paleoenvironment and human activity on the central Korean Peninsula during the late MIS 3 and MIS 2

AbstractLayers 12 and 13 of the Chongphadae Cave site located northwest of the central part of the Korean Peninsula include human fossils, fireplaces, a great number of lithic artefacts, and mammal remains. These layers represent new evidence for the paleoenvironment, human occupation, and activities in this region during the late MIS 3 and MIS 2, associated with global cold and dry climate, respectively. Most of lithic artefacts collected are flake tools. Raw material selection, lithic reduction technology, and lithic industry represent peculiar local characteristics. Our analysis of faunal assemblages also suggests that the Chongphadae region had a rich ecosystem capable of forming a diverse mammalian fauna including ungulates (mainly deer and horses) during this period. It is likely that the mosaic landscapes, including grasslands, forests, rivers, and wetlands, provided a favorable environment for humans, as well as mammals and plants, and the occupants of the site actively hunted and gathered in a relatively temperate environment. Our study suggests that the central Korean Peninsula was not severely affected by global dry and cold events such as LGM, although it was a somewhat humid and cold environment during the late MIS 3 and MIS 2. The central Korean Peninsula may have existed as an unknown refugium (or area of endemism) in northeastern Asia during this time.

The sediment at the end of the tunnel: Geophysical research to locate the Pleistocene entrance of Gruta da Companheira (Algarve, Southern Portugal)

AbstractUntil recently, evidence of Neanderthal cave use in the Algarve (Southern Portugal) came only from the site of Ibn Ammar. Over the last couple of years, archaeological excavations inside another cave, Gruta da Companheira, yielded Mousterian stone tools associated with possible human fossils. The discovery of this assemblage is groundbreaking because it may contribute to enlighten the Neanderthal/cave relationship and explain the dearth of similar sites in the Algarve. Gruta da Companheira, however, is a complex karst system, which was partly destroyed during its accidental discovery. As result, the original entrance of the cave remains unknown, and it is unclear how sediments, archaeological materials and Neanderthals accessed the site. To tackle these issues, we combined geomorphological observations with speleological, Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and Ground‐Penetrating Radar (GPR) prospections. Our data indicate that Gruta da Companheira was probably accessed from the hilltop through a sub‐vertical entrance. Additionally, our results suggest the existence of yet unexplored shallower cavities connected with the already known passages of Gruta da Companheira. These results will guide the opening of new excavation areas at the site. The limestone bedrock hosting Gruta da Companheira has been extensively dissolved by karst processes. Therefore, it is necessary to focus future research on the cave infillings to clarify whether Neanderthals exploited the cave's inner chambers or alternatively limited their occupations to the hilltop and geogenic processes reworked their materials into the endokarst system shortly after their stays. The deep karstification and partial collapse of the hill hosting Gruta da Companheira are common in limestone outcrops that occur throughout the Western Algarve. Poor visibility and poor accessibility of this karst area, densely covered with shrubby vegetation, are factors that need to be considered when addressing the scarcity of Middle Palaeolithic cave sites in this region.

Living fossils unearthed by blasting human chromosomes with Neanderthal mtDNA

The successful retrieval of ancient mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from Neanderthals provides powerful experimental evidence that clarifies the arguments between the out-of-Africa and multiregional models of evolution. However, the lack of nuclear DNA from Neanderthal fossils and mtDNA of early modern human fossils dating back to approximately the same time in the Pleistocene constitutes a limitation that may compromise the significance of mtDNA phylogenetic analysis. In this report, we introduce a mitochromic analysis using Neanderthal mtDNA as a foreign transgene and humans as a naturally occurring transgenic species. Forty Neanderthal mtDNA retrievable nuclear fragments were identified by blasting human genome data with Neanderthal mtDNA. Five of the 40 fragments exhibited higher correlation with Neanderthal mtDNA than those with modern human mtDNA. Furthermore, these five nuclear fragments harbor Neanderthal mtDNA-unique haplotypes. Based on the 98%+ identity between Neanderthal and modern human mtDNA when compared by groups, we suggest that some of the modern human nuclear fragments retrieved using Neanderthal mtDNA may aid in decoding Neanderthal genetic information, and also may simultaneously demonstrate a close genetic evolutionary relationship between modern humans and Neanderthals.

Aurignacian dynamics in Southeastern Europe based on spatial analysis, sediment geochemistry, raw materials, lithic analysis, and use-wear from Românești-Dumbrăvița

The Aurignacian is one of the first cultural-technological traditions commonly associated with the expansion of Homo sapiens in Europe. Early Homo sapiens demographics across the continent are therefore typically inferred using the distribution of Aurignacian assemblages. Western Romania has been used as a tie-point to connect the well-researched lithic assemblages from the eastern Mediterranean and Western Europe through its early Homo sapiens fossils. However, Romania’s archeological record remains underexplored thereby hindering our ability to directly connect better understood regions through time and space. Here we report on excavations from the open-air Middle/Upper Paleolithic site of Românești-Dumbrăvița I in southwestern Romania. Three stratified Paleolithic assemblages were extensively excavated within a 1-m-thick eolian-deposited sequence. Spatial, geochemical, raw material, techno-typological, and use-wear analysis of the site reveal patterns of artifact configuration, resource exploitation, fire history, knapping objectives, and functionality. Taken together, Românești-Dumbrăvița I is the first well-contextualized archeological site in close spatiotemporal proximity to many early, well-preserved human fossils and in East-Central Europe.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE OF PREHISTORIC CAVES IN BA THUOC DISTRICT, THANH HOA PROVINCE: PRESERVATION AND PROMOTION

Ba Thuoc is a mountainous district in western Thanh Hoa Province, where more than 20 archaeological sites have been discovered. One of the outstanding features here is the presence of Middle Pleistocene fauna in Lang Trang cave, including fossils of Gigantopithecus blacki, a giant ape. The appearance of early modern human fossils in the Late Pleistocene proves that Vietnam was the site of the earliest modern human evolution in Southeast Asia. In Ba Thuoc district, human communities were in continuous residence from 30,000 to 7,000 years BP and developed the Dieu stone craft industry. This industry merged with the Hoabinhian industry in the development process, creating a cultural nuance for the land of Ba Thuoc. By 7,000 years BP, the boundary between the two industries was virtually nonexistent. The prehistoric inhabitants here contributed to the formation of Middle Neolithic cultures in North Central Vietnam. In addition, the caves in Ba Thuoc were also places for the mountain-dwelling inhabitants of the Dong Son culture to visit and bury their dead in the centuries before and after the beginning of the common era. In this study, we systematized the documents on monuments and artifacts, and evaluated the outstanding cultural heritage of the prehistoric caves in Ba Thuoc district, which need to be preserved and promoted in the present day.