Human Experience Research Articles

Immunoregulatory role of platelet derivatives in the macrophage-mediated immune response.

Macrophages are innate immune cells that display remarkable phenotypic heterogeneity and functional plasticity. Due to their involvement in the pathogenesis of several human conditions, macrophages are considered to be an attractive therapeutic target. In line with this, platelet derivatives have been successfully applied in many medical fields and as active participants in innate immunity, cooperation between platelets and macrophages is essential. In this context, the aim of this review is to compile the current evidence regarding the effects of platelet derivatives on the phenotype and functions of macrophages to identify the advantages and shortcomings for feasible future clinical applications. A total of 669 articles were identified during the systematic literature search performed in PubMed and Web of Science databases. A total of 27 articles met the inclusion criteria. Based on published findings, platelet derivatives may play an important role in inducing a dynamic M1/M2 balance and promoting a timely M1-M2 shift. However, the differences in procedures regarding platelet derivatives and macrophages polarization and the occasional lack of information, makes reproducibility and comparison of results extremely challenging. Furthermore, understanding the differences between human macrophages and those derived from animal models, and taking into account the peculiarities of tissue resident macrophages and their ontogeny seem essential for the design of new therapeutic strategies. Research on the combination of macrophages and platelet derivatives provides relevant information on the function and mechanisms of the immune response.

Memory traces of duration and location in the right intraparietal sulcus

Time and space form an integral part of every human experience, and for the neuronal representation of these perceptual dimensions, previous studies point to the involvement of the right-hemispheric intraparietal sulcus and structures in the medial temporal lobe. Here we used multi-voxel pattern analysis (MVPA) to investigate long-term memory traces for temporal and spatial stimulus features in those areas. Participants were trained on four images associated with short versus long durations and with left versus right locations. Our results demonstrate stable representations of both temporal and spatial information in the right posterior intraparietal sulcus. Building upon previous findings of stable neuronal codes for directly perceived durations and locations, these results show that the reactivation of long-term memory traces for temporal and spatial features can be decoded from neuronal activation patterns in the right parietal cortex.

Reframing Vulnerability through an Embodied Theological Lens: Towards Ethical Engagement in a Globalized Context

This study examines the evolving concept of human vulnerability within the context of globalization and contemporary societal complexities. Its aim is to provide a comprehensive understanding of vulnerability’s proposed definition and its ethical relevance, particularly through an embodied ethical–theological lens. The research argues that this anthropological category when approached from an interdisciplinary perspective, reveals nuanced ethical dimensions essential for addressing contemporary challenges. Through the synthesis of insights from various disciplines, the study delineates the intricate interplay between corporeal experiences, affective states, and ethical considerations in understanding vulnerability. Interdisciplinary research methods were employed, drawing from theology, psychology, sociology, and philosophy. Grounding the inquiry in human experience and dialogues within different disciplinary narratives, the study explores vulnerability’s multifaceted nature and its implications for ethical engagement. The conclusions underscore the imperative role of theology in fostering ethical responses to contemporary dilemmas. By reframing vulnerability within an interdisciplinary and embodied framework, the research enriches ethical reflection and praxis, promoting human flourishing in a globalized world.

The 15-minute city concept: The case study within a neighbourhood of Thessaloniki.

Cities, crucial cultural hubs, mould individual and group identities. The global urban expansion, with over half the population in urban areas, presents interconnected challenges such as pollution, poverty, inequality, ageing infrastructure, resource overconsumption, land use changes, biodiversity impact and climate change. Addressing these demands ambitious actions targeting political, social and economic systems for transformative change. The theoretical framework guiding city transformation centres on an interdisciplinary approach influenced by the Smart and Green Transition. The '15-minute city' concept, emphasizing human scale and urban experience, proposes that cities enable residents to meet daily needs within a short walk or bike ride. The aim of this study was the exploration of its implementation in Greek cities, particularly Thessaloniki, which reveals inherent characteristics supporting the 15-minute concept. Through an interdisciplinary approach rooted in the Smart and Green Transition framework, the research provides concrete guidance for policymakers in tailoring urban planning strategies, allocating resources effectively and crafting policies conducive to successful and sustainable urban transformations. Moreover, prioritizing public engagement highlights the significance of community involvement in shaping urban development plans, ensuring that proposed initiatives align with residents' needs and desires. In essence, this research contributes tangible insights and actionable recommendations for Greek cities, paving the way for more liveable, resilient and sustainable urban environments.

Public health infrastructure and human resources in tribal areas of India: a decadal assessment (2012–2022) with Rural Health Statistics data

PurposeThe recommended public healthcare infrastructure and human resources are essential to deliver healthcare services, particularly in tribal areas, as the country’s tribal population depends mainly on the public healthcare system for their medical needs. India has a substantial share of the tribal population, accounting for approximately 9% of the total population. The paper reviews the state of public healthcare infrastructure and human resources in tribal areas for a period that spreads over a decade.Design/methodology/approachThe paper relied on data from the Government of India’s Rural Health Statistics (RHS) reports (2011–2012 and 2021–2022). From these reports, data on the physical infrastructure and human resources in the tribal areas were extracted. The extracted data were compiled and analyzed using Microsoft Excel.FindingsThe analysis showed that the improvement in public healthcare infrastructure and human resource situation in tribal areas of the country was not commensurate with the tribal population growth seen in the last decade. As a result, the average population covered by a health facility was greater than the prescribed norms in the tribal-dominated geographies. The health worker-population ratio at the primary healthcare level was also higher than the national norms. However, there was a substantial improvement in the doctor-population ratio at the primary health center level. In comparison to tribal-lean states, tribal-dominated states faced the concurrent challenge of a growing population and strained healthcare facilities and human resources. As a result, the healthcare infrastructure and human resource gap continued in the tribal-dominated states of the country. The gaps in health infrastructure and human resources in tribal-dominated states must be addressed as a priority under the health infrastructure strengthening efforts to ensure that the tribal population receives and has access to quality health care from publicly funded health facilities, leading to improved health outcomes in the tribal population and the achievement of the sustainable development goals (SDGs).Originality/valueWe have not come across any paper that has carried out pancountry analysis of healthcare infrastructure and human resources in tribal areas.

ChatGPT Versus National Eligibility cum Entrance Test for Postgraduate (NEET PG).

Introduction With both suspicion and excitement, artificial intelligence tools are being integrated into nearly every aspect of human existence, including medical sciences and medical education. The newest large language model (LLM) in the class of autoregressive language models is ChatGPT. While ChatGPT's potential to revolutionize clinical practice and medical education is under investigation, further research is necessary to understand its strengths and limitations in this field comprehensively. Methods Two hundred National Eligibility cum Entrance Test for Postgraduate 2023 questions were gathered from various public education websites and individually entered into Microsoft Bing (GPT-4 Version 2.2.1). Microsoft Bing Chatbot is currently the only platform incorporating all of GPT-4's multimodal features, including image recognition. The results were subsequently analyzed. Results Out of 200 questions, ChatGPT-4 answered 129 correctly. The most tested specialties were medicine (15%), obstetrics and gynecology (15%), general surgery (14%), and pathology (10%), respectively. Conclusion This study sheds light on how well the GPT-4 performs in addressing the NEET-PG entrance test. ChatGPT has potential as an adjunctive instrument within medical education and clinical settings. Its capacity to react intelligently and accurately in complicated clinical settings demonstrates its versatility.

Impacts of Global Climate Change on Agricultural Production: A Comprehensive Review

Global warming is one of the greatest threats to the social development of human beings. It is a typical example of global climate change, and has profoundly affected human production and life in various aspects. As the foundation of human existence, agricultural production is particularly vulnerable to climate change, which has altered environmental factors such as temperature, precipitation, and wind speed, and affected crop growth cycles, the frequency of extreme weather events, and the occurrence patterns of pests and diseases directly or indirectly, ultimately influencing crop yield and quality. This article reviews the latest research progress in this field, summarizes the impact of global climate change on agricultural production as well as the feedback mechanisms of agricultural activities on climate change, and proposes strategies for agricultural production to cope with global climate change. This paper aims to provide a scientific basis and suggestions for ensuring the sustainable development of agricultural production.

Crop Recommendation System Using Machine Learning: A Comparative Study

Agriculture, as a fundamental aspect of human existence, faces challenges in crop selection, impacting resource allocation and productivity. This project addresses these challenges by proposing a stable system employing a soft voting classifier ensemble method. The ensemble comprises Naive Bayes, Support Vector Machine (SVM), Decision Tree, and Random Forest classifiers, offering personalized crop recommendations. Feasibility analysis encompasses technical, operational, economic, and scheduling aspects, ensuring practicality and efficacy. Development follows an incremental model, emphasizing continuous enhancement through feedback. Results indicate accuracies for individual classifiers (’Decision Tree’: 98.38%, ’Random Forest’: 98.90%, ’Naive Bayes’: 98.14%, ’SVM’: 98.50%), with an ensemble accuracy of 98.99%. Cross-validation confirms robustness. Evaluation metrics such as recall, precision, and F1 score demonstrate that the soft voting ensemble outperforms individual classifiers, highlighting its effectiveness in optimizing crop selection processes in agriculture and facilitating improved resource management and productivity.

A COGNITIVE STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF PINK FLOYD’S SONG LYRIC “TIME”

The objective of this paper is to describe how the content of song lyrics interacts with concepts of time, memory, and human experience and knowing how language and cognition are interrelated to create profound artistic expression in music through scheme theory, metaphor theory, and figures of speech as features of creativity and novelty in language use. The data was derived from the song entitled Time by Pink Floyd. The research method used in this study is qualitative descriptive. The result of this study is skillfully employing various figures of speech, such as metaphor, personification, and paradox, to convey the complexities of time, aging, regret, and the human experience. These literary devices engage the listener's intellect and emotions, prompting reflection on the passage of time and its impact on our lives. Furthermore, the song employs schema theory to activate the "Time that has passed" schema in listeners, encouraging them to reflect on the value of time and the importance of seizing precious moments before they slip away. The song's vivid imagery and metaphors serve as a bridge between abstract concepts and concrete experiences, making it a relatable and thought-provoking piece of art.

Prediction of Human Physiological States by Using an Enhanced Recursive Feature Elimination Method

Human Action Recognition (HAR) is a vital part of the healthcare sector. Medical practitioners are experiencing difficulty in recognizing human physiological conditions due to the enormous quantity of sensory stimulation. Machine learning techniques help to predict human physiological conditions, providing medical practitioners to work more efficiently. Feature selection is an essential part of discovering new knowledge in the majority of real-world problems when there are a lot of features. Feature selection is extremely useful because it speeds up decisions and enhances classification performance. The importance of feature selection in machine learning is dimension reduction in a massive multivariate data collection. This paper presents an effective feature selection method known as the Enhanced Recursive Feature Elimination (EFRE) for selecting key features from the data set for HAR prediction. The experimental results reveal that the ERFE technique selects the most suitable features for HAR prediction. The performance of the proposed ERFE approach is tested using different performance evaluation metrics. The performance analysis shows that the ERFE method outperforms existing feature selection methods with 88% accuracy.

Pandemics Fear and Anxiety: Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Masque of the Red Death”, Amir Tag Elsir’s Ebola 76 and COVID-19

This study examines the archetypal stages of human responses to fear and anxiety during pandemics and epidemics in Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Masque of the Red Death,” Amir Tag Elsir’s Ebola 76, and COVID-19. Pandemics and epidemics elicit a range of psychosocial response mechanisms in individuals due to innate and unmanageable feelings of fear and uncertainty. In the face of chaotic circumstances, the human collective psyche exhibits contagious horrors that are both random and overwhelming. However, these reactions follow historically patterned prototypical stages that significantly disrupt human ontological existence's apparent peace, harmony, and rhythm. The manifestation of this division became apparent during the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly during periods of confinement, when the fear of the virus gradually infiltrated even the smallest aspects of social life. Notably, the selected narratives accurately depict the various stages of human responses to pandemics. The stages are represented in Poe’s story as disapprobation, surprise, horror, and disgust, and in Elsir’s novel as shock, denial, acceptance, and hope. These phases unveil a comprehensive and emotional engagement with the human experience of pandemics and epidemics, offering a descriptive and anticipatory portrayal of the imminent social, psychological, and cultural calamities when the COVID-19 pandemic began to unpredictably ravage the world.

Subverting Anthropocentric Mythic Elements: Animal Representations in the Select Poems of Louise Glück and Mary Oliver

The representation of animals in literature has long been dominated by anthropocentric perspectives that prioritize human experiences and values. Animals were relegated to metaphors and narrative accessories, neglecting their inherent rights and treating them primarily as reflections of human qualities. This paper examines the works of contemporary American poets Louise Glück and Mary Oliver, focusing on how their selected poems reconsider conventional anthropocentric patterns of animal representations in poetry. The analysis centers on the poets’ strategies to blur rigid boundaries between the human-animal divide by challenging conventional depictions where animals are frequently assigned peripheral roles. The study explores how these poems cultivate powerful connections with the natural world, fostering a sense of communion and interconnectedness with nature. Additionally, the research highlights the deliberate efforts by the poets to reconfigure hierarchies, challenge value dualisms, and question anthropocentric narratives that sanction oppression. Lastly, the paper contributes to the broader discourse on ecocritical thought, enriching discussions on literature and environmental activism.

The Psychosocial Developmental Phases of Death (Mortality) Awareness: What Educational Therapists should know when working with Terminally Ill Clients

This conceptual paper explores death and dying (mortality) from scientific, philosophical, and psychosocial perspectives, emphasizing its multidimensionality. Scientifically, death signifies the cessation of biological functions, while philosophically, it marks the end of conscious experience. Psychosocially, death encompasses emotional, cultural, and social dimensions, shaped by beliefs and cultural backgrounds. Educational therapists play a crucial role in navigating the psychosocial aspects of death, providing support and guidance to individuals and families coping with loss and grief. Across cultures, diverse rites and rituals as well as mourning practices aid in navigating its challenges. Focusing on death awareness from a psychosocial standpoint, this paper highlights its profound psychological implications, especially within the Eriksonian developmental theory, which is the main focus of this paper. The author has also suggested that future research could integrate interdisciplinary approaches to gain a holistic understanding of death, examining biological, philosophical, and psychosocial intersections. Practical applications could include enhancing palliative care, bereavement support, and mental health interventions, with educational therapists playing a pivotal role in these palliative endeavors. Studying cultural variations in approaching death or mortality could deepen our appreciation of human experiences. Longitudinal studies could track the evolution of individuals’ attitudes towards death and its impact on well-being. Overall, further research on death and dying, with the involvement of educational therapists, can help to enrich our current comprehension of death’s implications for humanity.

Evaluation of synbiotic combinations of commercial probiotic strains with different prebiotics in in vitro and ex vivo human gut microcosm model.

Exploring probiotics for their crosstalk with the host microbiome through the fermentation of non-digestible dietary fibers (prebiotics) for their potential metabolic end-products, particularly short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), is important for understanding the endogenous host-gut microbe interaction. This study was aimed at a systematic comparison of commercially available probiotics to understand their synergistic role with specific prebiotics in SCFAs production both in vitro and in the ex vivo gut microcosm model. Probiotic strains isolated from pharmacy products including Lactobacillus sporogenes (strain not labeled), Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (ATCC53103), Streptococcus faecalis (T-110 JPC), Bacillus mesentericus (TO-AJPC), Bacillus clausii (SIN) and Saccharomyces boulardii (CNCM I-745) were assessed for their probiotic traits including survival, antibiotic susceptibility, and antibacterial activity against pathogenic strains. Our results showed that the microorganisms under study had strain-specific abilities to persist in human gastrointestinal conditions and varied anti-infective efficacy and antibiotic susceptibility. The probiotic strains displayed variation in the utilization of six different prebiotic substrates for their growth under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Their prebiotic scores (PS) revealed which were the most suitable prebiotic carbohydrates for the growth of each strain and suggested xylooligosaccharide (XOS) was the poorest utilized among all. HPLC analysis revealed a versatile pattern of SCFAs produced as end-products of prebiotic fermentation by the strains which was influenced by growth conditions. Selected synbiotic (prebiotic and probiotic) combinations showing high PS and high total SCFAs production were tested in an ex vivo human gut microcosm model. Interestingly, significantly higher butyrate and propionate production was found only when synbiotics were applied as against when individual probiotic or prebiotics were applied alone. qRT-PCR analysis with specific primers showed that there was a significant increase in the abundance of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria with synbiotic blends compared to pre-, or probiotics alone. In conclusion, this work presents findings to suggest prebiotic combinations with different well-established probiotic strains that may be useful for developing effective synbiotic blends.

Воля к власти в этногенезе: ницшеанские мотивы евразийской антропологии

Introduction.The article carries out a philosophical reconstruction of Eurasian anthropology based on the analysis of the theory of ethnogenesis by L. N. Gumilyov. In the conceptual developments of the classicist of Eurasianism, the motives of Nietzschean anthropology are explicated, which makes it possible to fit the Eurasian concept of man into the context of post-metaphysical philosophy. Theoretical analysis. The application of methodological principles and guidelines of philosophical comparative analysis allows us to reveal parallels between the basic concepts of the theory of ethnogenesis and the basic concepts of Nietzschean anthropology (the will to power, overman, eternal return). Conclusion. A comparative analysis allows us to conclude that the key point of both Nietzschean anthropology and the anthropological teachings of L. N. Gumilev advocates transgression, understood by the author as an ontological horizon opposite to transcendence. The article substantiates the thesis that the constitutive moment of understanding a person in the teachings of F. Nietzsche and the theory of L. N. Gumilev is the rejection of transcendence and the affirmation of the purely transgressive nature of human existence. The rethinking of the nature of the connection between Nietzschean anthropology and the heritage of antiquity is also carried out. It is concluded that Nietzsche’s appeal to antiquity was provoked by the situation of crisis in European metaphysics and Western Christianity. The thesis is substantiated that the crisis of metaphysical philosophy is at the same time the main motive for the Eurasians to turn to the East as a fundamentally non-European horizon of philosophical thought.

Perspectives on vulnerability from the narratives of older migrants.

Older migrants are considered avulnerable population group in many ways. Marginalization and social exclusion lead to unequal opportunities for social participation. In order to break down barriers for older migrants, the perspectives of people with migration biographies should be given greater consideration. To this end, the results of an explorative intersectional ethical analysis of care narratives of older migrants are discussed in the light of aging studies research. The focus is on the ethical analysis of five guided interviews with older migrants between 65 and 80years old, who have migrated from different countries in southeastern Europe. In contrast to the prevalent expert perspective, the narratives of the older migrants interviewed revealed not only resistance to vulnerabilization but also multiple negotiations of autonomy and dependency. By making ambivalent narrative and action strategies visible and linking them to narratives of intergenerational care relationships, the significance of care-ethical interpretations of vulnerability and characterization of vulnerability as "auniversal, inevitable, and anthropological feature of humanity resulting from the embodied, finite, and socially contingent structure of human existence" [4] can be demonstrated.

A HUG taxonomy of humans with potential in human–robot hugs

Humans can easily perform various types of hugs in human contact and affection experience. With the prevalence of robots in social applications, they would be expected to possess the capability of hugs as humans do. However, it is still not an easy task for robots, considering the complex force and spatial constraints of robot hugs. In this work, we propose the HUG taxonomy, which distinguishes between different hugging patterns based on human demonstrations and prior knowledge. In this taxonomy, hugs are arranged according to (1) hugging tightness, (2) hugging style, and (3) bilateral coordination, resulting in 16 different hug types. We then further study the hug type preference of humans in different scenarios and roles. Furthermore, we propose a rule-based classification system to validate the potential of this taxonomy in human–robot hugs based on a humanoid robot with an E-skin of contact sensation. The HUG taxonomy could provide human hugging behavior information in advance, facilitating the action control of humanoid robots. We believe the results of our work can benefit future studies on human–robot hugging interactions.

‘When something doesn’t fit the story’: human suspicion and discretion in frontline border checks in times of datafication and technologisation

ABSTRACT In this article, I ask how Finnish border guards negotiate their role as human decision-makers in frontline border checks in the current era of datafication and technologisation. I address this question by delving into the key decision made in frontline border checks: namely, whether to let travellers pass or to send them for further inspection. This decision is pivotal in the sorting of people crossing borders, that is, who is admitted, who is held up, and who is turned away. Through an analysis that borrows from Institutional Ethnography and argumentation analysis, based on interviews with border guards and observation at the Border and Coast Guard Academy, I show that even as security authorities are seeking to increase the use of technologies and automation, Finnish frontline border guards present their own discretionary powers as unchallenged by technology and automation and argue that human feelings, senses, and experience are key to the formation of suspicion at the border. Storytelling is placed at the centre of the decision-making process, in which suspicion is directed at those whose stories do not ‘fit’ or ‘feel right’. Border guards locate their professional skill and worth in their discretionary powers, manifested in their human ability to evaluate the entity of the ‘story-human’: the body, the story, the documents, and the setting. Data systems and technology only offer pieces. These insights exemplify how law translates into the sorting of humans at borders and can also guide future studies of street-level bureaucrats re-orienting in an increasingly automated world.

The Influence of an Acute Administration of Cannabidiol or Rivastigmine, Alone and in Combination, on Scopolamine-Provoked Memory Impairment in the Passive Avoidance Test in Mice.

Memory is one of the most important abilities of our brain. The process of memory and learning is necessary for the proper existence of humans in the surrounding environment. However, sometimes there are unfavourable changes in the functioning of the brain and memory deficits occur, which may be associated with various diseases. Disturbances in the cholinergic system lead to abnormalities in memory functioning and are an essential part of clinical symptoms of many neurodegenerative diseases. However, their treatment is difficult and still unsatisfactory; thus, it is necessary to search for new drugs and their targets, being an alternative method of mono- or polypharmacotherapy. One of the possible strategies for the modulation of memory-related cognitive disorders is connected with the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The aim of the present study was to determine for the first time the effect of administration of natural cannabinoid compound (cannabidiol, CBD) and rivastigmine alone and in combination on the memory disorders connected with cholinergic dysfunctions in mice, provoked by using an antagonist of muscarinic cholinergic receptor-scopolamine. To assess and understand the memory-related effects in animals, we used the passive avoidance (PA) test, commonly used to examine the different stages of memory. An acute administration of CBD (1 mg/kg) or rivastigmine (0.5 mg/kg) significantly affected changes in scopolamine-induced disturbances in three different memory stages (acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval). Interestingly, co-administration of CBD (1 mg/kg) and rivastigmine (0.5 mg/kg) also attenuated memory impairment provoked by scopolamine (1 mg/kg) injection in the PA test in mice, but at a much greater extent than administered alone. The combination therapy of these two compounds, CBD and rivastigmine, appears to be more beneficial than substances administered alone in reducing scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment. This polytherapy seems to be favourable in the pharmacotherapy of various cognitive disorders, especially those in which cholinergic pathways are implicated.

Pendidikan Alquran Berbasis Budaya Melayu Dan Iptek Di MAN 2 Langkat Tanjung Pura Kabupaten Langkat

This research aims to she how koran education is based on malay culture and science and technology in Man 2 Langkat , Langkat Distrcik. We know that knowledge is hinted at by Allah in the Koran in the form of raising the level of people who have knowlwdge and it is imposibble to achieve progress (desire) to function this nature well without the power. Science and technology is a means for humanity to always be able to color to maly culture that exists in Langkat. Science and technology is a person’s advanced knowledge and is able to be a tool for solving problems. It is something that no one can leave behind because it is very important. This is often mentioned in the Koran , meaning that Islam strongly recommends the development of science and technology. The link between Malay culture based Koranic education and science ad technology is that the Koran views education as the first and main issue in developing and improving the condition of humanity in the world. The teachings contained therein include faith, monotheism, noble morals, and rules regarding vertical and horizontal relationships which are instilled through education based on Malay culture and science adan technology.In this research, the author provides how to direct and guide children through alquran and science and technology education which is currently developing very rapidly. Malay culture is a step towards maintaining the existing culture in teaching children about Alquran education. Where there are still many parent educating their children to recite the Koran in the afternoon in the villages to get alquran education. As the development of science and technology progresses, it does not become an obstacle for children to receive alquran education.As for the method used in this research, this researcha uses a descriptive qualitative approach, with a qualitative approach. With a qualitative approach, researchers will look at the malay cultural phenomenon in Man 2 Langkat as a forum for implementing formal education. The qualitative selection in this research objectives that want to be described, namely to reveal Alquran education, the development of Malay culture, the implementation of science and technology development on the character of student in the second world. This reason is very correct and appropriate considering the nature of the qualitative research process which involves important efforts such as asking questions and producedures, collecting specific data and interpreting the meaning of the data.