Human-elephant Conflict Research Articles

Effectiveness of Solar-powered Fence in Reducing Human - Wild Elephant Conflict (HEC) in Northeast Jhapa District, Nepal

Human Elephant Conflict (HEC) is a product of complex interaction between human and elephant that represents the detrimental impact for both. This study was aimed to assess the effectiveness of 17 km solar-powered electric fence installed in 2015 in north-eastern part of Jhapa district (Bahundangi VDC) against transboundary herds of wild elephants (150-200) that annually enters into Nepal from India and caused HEC. For this study, the detailed information on HEC incidents (human casualty and injury, crop and property damage) before and after the fence installation was collected. Affected wards within Bahundangi VDC were purposively selected for households survey (N=100), consultations and group discussions (N=5) and participatory field observations. We encountered poor maintenance and care of the electric fence and in some places covered by grasses and climbers questioning its sustainability. In-spite of it, the number of incidents of HEC sharply reduced by 96.13%. Before the fence (in 2014), the estimated economic loss per household per year in the VDC was 103 USD (crop=95 USD and property=8 USD). Remarkably, there was reduction in economic loss of crop and property damage by 93% and 96% respectively. Besides, chi-square test of independence showed that there was significant difference in damages among the 4 affected wards of Bahundangi VDC with respect to paddy crop but not with maize crop, cowshed and other properties. After the fence installation, only few elephants accidently entered in some areas by breaking the solar fence and caused few incidents of crop and property damages. From the overall evaluation, solar fence was found effective in reducing HEC by protecting human lives, crops and properties.

Forest elephant movement and habitat use in a tropical forest-grassland mosaic in Gabon.

Poaching of forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) for ivory has decimated their populations in Central Africa. Studying elephant movement can provide insight into habitat and resource use to reveal where, when, and why they move and guide conservation efforts. We fitted 17 forest elephants with global positioning system (GPS) collars in 2015 and 2016 in the tropical forest-grassland mosaic of the Wonga Wongué Presidential Reserve (WW), Gabon. Using the location data, we quantified movement distances, home ranges, and habitat use to examine the environmental drivers of elephant movements and predict where elephants occur spatially and temporally. Forest elephants, on average, traveled 2,840 km annually and had home ranges of 713 km2, with males covering significantly larger home ranges than females. Forest elephants demonstrated both daily and seasonal movement patterns. Daily, they moved between forest and grassland at dawn and dusk. Seasonally, they spent proportionally more time in grassland than forest during the short-wet season when grasses recruit. Forest elephants also traveled faster during the short-wet season when fruit availability was greatest, likely reflecting long, direct movements to preferred fruiting tree species. Forest elephants tended to select areas with high tree and shrub density that afford cover and browse. When villages occurred in their home ranges elephants spent a disproportionate amount of time near them, particularly in the dry season, probably for access to agricultural crops and preferred habitat. Given the importance of the grassland habitat for elephants, maintenance of the forest-grassland matrix is a conservation priority in WW. Law enforcement, outreach, and education should focus on areas of potential human-elephant conflict near villages along the borders of the reserve. GPS-tracking should be extended into multi-use areas in the peripheries of protected areas to evaluate the effects of human disturbance on elephant movements and to maintain connectivity among elephant populations in Gabon.

‘Wildlife officials only care about animals’: Farmers' perceptions of a Ministry-based extension delivery system in mitigating human-wildlife conflicts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

It is widely recognised that government intervention in development issues can shape people's perceptions and experiences. This study examined the influence of a Ministry-based extension system on community-based, problem animal control and perceptions among local arable farmers at the eastern Okavango Panhandle in northern Botswana. Using a survey of 388 arable farmers and key informant interviews, our results showed that participation of local people in the implementation of the participatory project was vital for improving people's perceptions and gaining adoption of the innovations, and significantly contributing to project outcomes. Lack of people participation in decision making, the extent to which farmers perceived extension agents as trustworthy, the number of extension agents and extension delivery methods were found to be important factors explaining farmers' perceptions and adoption decisions. Analyses also indicated that knowledge development alone (which is a form of community empowerment) was not enough to encourage participation and innovation adoption. Village project committee (VPC) members' and farmers' remarks about their socioeconomic hardships suggested that they preferred economic incentives over any other incentives. This suggests that community's immediate needs for livelihood and food security are among the locally pressing needs that should be addressed to drive people's commitment to the project. From a policy perspective, our results underscore the need to implement comprehensive interventions that address wildlife management and community development, and actively involve local people in management and decision making to achieve sustainability in human elephant conflict management. There is need, therefore, for government (particularly the wildlife departments) to provide an institutional structure for supporting community-based governance for the purpose of ensuring effective and sustainable wildlife management and conservation.

Human-elephant conflict in western Thailand: Socio-economic drivers and potential mitigation strategies.

Understanding human-wildlife conflict is an important first step in the conservation of highly endangered species that can have adverse effects on human communities, such as elephants. To gain insights into variables that shape attitudes toward elephant conservation in Asia, we surveyed 410 households and 46 plantation owners in seven villages around the Salakpra Wildlife Sanctuary in western Thailand, an area of high human-elephant conflict. We sought to evaluate how past experiences with elephants (positive or negative), as well as socio-economic variables (age, income level, gender, and employment type) affect attitudes toward elephant conservation and coexistence in this area. In addition, we quantified deterrence methods currently used and identify potential mitigation strategies supported by community members. In general, less supportive attitudes toward elephant conservation and coexistence were held by individuals older than 35 years of age, those who had previously had experienced negative interactions with elephants, those with lower incomes, and those working in the agricultural sector. Conversely, those who had received benefits from living near elephants (e.g., supplemental income or feelings of pride from hosting volunteers or participating in conservation work) had more supportive views of elephant coexistence. Plantation owners reported using a variety of deterrence methods with varying success, with firecrackers being the most commonly utilized method. Community members identified several potentially beneficial mitigation strategies including forest restorations and patrol teams, adding water sources to wild elephant habitat, and education of local school and community groups. Overall, our results highlight the value of community members receiving benefits from living near elephants and suggest that special incentives may be needed for demographic groups disproportionately affected by elephants (e.g. those at lower income levels, those working in agriculture). A combination of these and other approaches will be required if human-elephant coexistence in western Thailand is to be realized.

<b>People’s attitude towards wild elephants, forest conservation and Human-Elephant conflict in Nilambur, southern Western Ghats of Kerala, India</b>

Conflict with elephants and subsequent economic losses negatively affect residents’ tolerance towards wild elephants. It is important to understand people’s attitude towards wildlife, especially Asian Elephants with an endangered status. A questionnaire survey was undertaken with 510 forest fringe residents of Nilambur North and South Forest Divisions, Kerala, to understand residents’ attitudes towards elephant conservation and Human-Elephant conflict. The majority of the villagers experienced psychological stress and fear associated with movement restriction and chances of encounters with elephants. Crop damage was perceived as the most serious issue, followed by injury or death by encounters with elephants. Elephants show a higher preference for raiding Jackfruit and Plantain than other crops. The conflict was caused more frequently by solitary elephants than by elephant herds. Elephants were mainly found near farm areas during late night (22:00–02:00 hr) and early night (20:00–22:00 hr). More than half of the residents were in favour of forest conservation owing to its ecological value. One-fourth of the respondents favoured forest conservation due to its extraction benefits such as collection of fuel wood and cattle grazing. Almost equal proportions of people have positive and negative attitudes towards elephants. In such instances, the possibility for a drastic shift towards negative attitudes following spontaneous elephant conflict events can be expected. Ecological awareness, interaction among stakeholders, and participatory maintenance of mitigation methods will possibly reduce conflict and contribute towards the coexistence of people and elephants in this human-dominated landscape.

Elephants as actors in the political ecology of human–elephant conflict

This paper examines the agency of African elephants as important actors in the political ecology of human–elephant conflict, and in shaping the politics of land in post‐colonial Kenya. The paper is based on field research in Laikipia, northern Kenya. It considers the role of elephants, with their size, sagacity, hunger, mobility and complex interactions with people, as powerful actors in shared landscapes, and therefore in the politics surrounding their own conservation. The paper uses spatial data and interviews to explore elephant behaviour and movements through the landscape and their interactions with people, and explore the way in which those interactions affect the separation of “animal spaces” set aside for conservation and the “beastly places” of smallholder farming and crop‐raiding, and the conflict and transgressions involved when elephants cross from one to the other. The elephant is a lively actor in the inter‐species power play of Laikipia, and in the politics of conservation and of land. A mutually respectful multispecies politics in northern Kenya demands a clear understanding and acceptance of the needs of elephants.

Human-Elephant Conflict in Sonamukhi C.D. Block of Bankura District, West Bengal

Human-Elephant Conflict (HEC) is a complex interaction between humans and elephants. This article is an attempt to examine the HEC in the Sonamukhi block of Bankura District. This block is an HEC-affected area, where the increasing human population density and the changing land-use patterns continuously reduce the naturally dwelling place of the elephants. As a result of the reduced geographical spaces, the elephant herds destroy crops, houses, and even kill people. Irritated farmers in return hit back by shooting, wounding elephants with home-made weapons. The conflict burgeons every day. This research article is an outcome of the empirical investigation to chalk out the major causes and consequences of this conflict due to changing behaviour of the wild elephants and the land use patterns of the affected people.

New elephant crisis in Asia-Early warning signs from Myanmar.

In the southern Bago Yoma mountain range in Myanmar, Asian elephants are being killed at a disturbing rate. This emerging crisis was identified initially through a telemetry study when 7 of 19 of collared elephants were poached within a year of being fitted with a satellite-GPS collar. Subsequent follow up of ground teams confirmed the human caused death or disappearance of at least 19 elephants, including the seven collared individuals, within a 35 km2 area in less than two years. The carcasses of 40 additional elephants were found in areas located across south-central Myanmar once systematic surveys began by our team and collaborators. In addition to the extreme rate of loss, this study documents the targeting of elephants for their skin instead of the more common ivory, an increasing trend in Myanmar. Intensive research programs focused on other conservation problems identified this issue and are now encouraging local authorities to prioritize anti-poaching efforts and improve conservation policies within the country. Myanmar represents one of the last remaining countries in Asia with substantial wildlands suitable for elephants. Increasing rates of human-elephant conflict and poaching events in this country pose a dire threat to the global population.

Human-Elephant Conflict: Chasing Away Elephants at the Risk of Farmers Lives

Human-Elephant Conflict: Chasing Away Elephants at the Risk of Farmers Lives

Projection of Future Changes in Elephant Population in Amboseli under Representative Concentration Pathways

Within savanna environments, movements of elephant are influenced by changes in climate especially seasonal rainfall. In this study, we investigated the possible changes in elephant population based on projected rainfall changes using regional climate models (RCM) and Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). The relationship between elephant and rainfall was modelled against annual, wet season, dry season rainfall based on various time lags. Future relation between elephant and rainfall was projected based on three RCPs; 2.6, 4.5 and 8.5. There was a strong linear relationship between elephant and October-November-December (OND) rains with time lag of 13 years (Y = −4016.43 + 19.11x, r2 = 0.459, P = 0.006). The rainfall trends for RCP 2.6 and 4.5 showed a slight increase in annual rainfall for the period 2006-2100 but driven by OND increases. Rainfall increase for RCP 8.5 was significant and was driven by increase in both March-April-May (MAM) and OND. These rainfall dynamics had influence on the projected elephant population in the Amboseli ecosystem. For RCP 2.6 and 4.5 the elephant population increase was 2455 and 2814 respectively. RCP 8.5 elephant population doubled to an average of 3348 elephants. In all the RCPs there are seasonal and yearly variations and absolute number varies from the average. The range of variation is small in RCPs 2.6 and 4.5 compared to RCP 8.5. Evidently, elephant population will increase based on projected rainfall projections surpassing park capacity. It therefore, requires that the Park authority put in place measures that could contain these numbers including opening of blocked wildlife corridors, maintain the cross border movement of Amboseli elephant with Tanzania in that case ensure there is no poaching. Lastly, work with local communities so that they can benefit from tourism through setting up conservancies through which they could minimize the human elephant conflicts based on the projected elephant population.

Genetic Diversity and Variation in Captive Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in Thailand

Numbers of wild Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus) have been decreasing gradually throughout Asia due primarily to human activities, such as poaching, and habitat encroachment and destruction that lead to human–elephant conflict. Sustainability problems exist in captive populations as well, where morbidity and mortality rates are high and reproduction is low. Determining the genetic diversity of these populations is essential for conservation and sustainable utilization efforts. Intersimple sequence repeat markers were used to assess the genetic variation and differentiation in 97 captive Asian elephants from seven elephant camps in Chiang Mai, Thailand. The nine primers chosen for the analysis revealed 88 bands in male and 115 bands in female elephants, of which 37 (42.05%) and 83 (63.64%) were polymorphic, respectively. Shannon’s index information ( I = 2.415 ± 0.054) and expected heterozygosity (He = 0.892 ± 0.008) indicated high species-level genetic diversity. The fixation index ( Fst) was −0.130 ± 0.016, demonstrating there was no genetic subdivision between populations. A cluster analysis was performed using Unweight Pair-Group Method with Arithmetic Mean and dendrograms, which illustrated genetic relationships among captive Asian elephants that included 2 main clusters across the seven camps and 27 clusters for the 97 individual elephants. This high variability may be due to the different origins of these individuals, including originating from other Asian countries. Thus, this study showed that intersimple sequence repeat marker analysis was effective in demonstrating high genetic diversity among captive Asian elephants in Chiang Mai province and found cluster differences that could be used to guide breeding management to decrease the risk of inbreeding among Asian elephant groups.

Raiding or not raiding ? A study of the ecological correlates of human-elephant conflict at Nazinga Game Ranch (Burkina Faso)

Incursion ou non ? Étude des corrélations écologiques du conflit Homme-Éléphant dans le Ranch de Gibier de Nazinga (Burkina Faso) Le phénomène de conflit Homme-Éléphant constitue une préoccupation majeure dans de nombreux pays en voie de développement. Cependant, on ne dispose que de peu d’informations sur sa dynamique dans les pays de l’Afrique de l’Ouest. Dans cet article, nous analysons les corrélations écologiques de la conservation de l’Éléphant (Loxodonta africana) dans dix villages riverains du Ranch de Gibier de Nazinga, au sud du Burkina Faso, au cours des années 2002 et 2006. Pour chacune des deux années, les corrélats de dégât d’éléphants étaient consistants : les éléphants ont attaqué préférentiellement trois villages du sud, tandis que sept villages du nord ont été pratiquement ignorés bien qu’aucune différence significative n’existait entre les distances de ces groupes de villages par rapport au Ranch. De plus, les éléphants ont surtout ciblé les plantations d’igname ou les plantations mixtes d’igname et de manioc; et pendant au moins un an, ils ont activement évité d’autres cultures (sorgho, maïs, mil et coton). Ils ont également ciblé les petites plantations. La taille de la population humaine dans chaque village n’a pas influencé la probabilité des dégâts (les trois villages-cibles du sud n’étaient pas plus petits en termes de taille de la population que les villages qui n’ont pas ou rarement été ciblés). La taille des groupes d’éléphants qui causaient les dégâts a été plus importante en 2006 qu’en 2002 . Les implications écologiques et en matière de conservation de ces patterns sont discutées dans cet article.

<b>Status of conflict mitigation measures in Nilambur, Western Ghats of Kerala, India</b>

Mitigation measures are one of the best strategies for the management of human-elephant conflict. An assessment of the effectiveness of existing crop protection methods in 17 forest fringe villages of Karulai and Vazhikadavu ranges of Nilambur South and North Forest Divisions was carried out during June 2015 to May 2016. Mitigation methods found in the study area include electric fences (EF), combined electric fence and trench (EPT+EF), and elephant-proof stone wall (EPSW). Barriers were surveyed by foot and mapped with the help of global positioning systems (GPS). Number of elephant crossing points per kilometre along the length of the barrier was highest for EPT+EF and least for EF. About 86% of the barrier surveyed was located at an average distance of 14.47m from the villages and 13.63% of the barrier located at an average distance of 55.33m from the village. Damage caused by elephants to EF was primarily due to lack of maintenance of the fences. In EPT+EF, natural weak spots and gateways created for the passage of people and cattle were the main locations of elephant crossing points. Damage to the EPSW was caused by elephants by breaking the top portion of the wall. Areas outside damaged spots primarily contained agricultural land, water bodies and forests, with human habitations being least likely. Crossing points were located primarily in moderate vegetation zones. Encouraging local communities to take a primary role in the maintenance of barriers is essential in this context. Information on the current status of mitigation measures will help to improve the efficiency of barriers and facilitate better management of human-elephant conflicts.

Using interviews and biological sign surveys to infer seasonal use of forested and agricultural portions of a human-dominated landscape by Asian elephants in Nepal

Understanding how wide-ranging animals use landscapes in which human use is highly heterogeneous is important for determining patterns of human–wildlife conflict and designing mitigation strategies. Here, we show how biological sign surveys in forested components of a human-dominated landscape can be combined with human interviews in agricultural portions of a landscape to provide a full picture of seasonal use of different landscape components by wide-ranging animals and resulting human–wildlife conflict. We selected Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Nepal to illustrate this approach. Asian elephants are threatened throughout their geographic range, and there are large gaps in our understanding of their landscape-scale habitat use. We identified all potential elephant habitat in Nepal and divided the potential habitat into sampling units based on a 10 km by 10 km grid. Forested areas within grids were surveyed for signs of elephant use, and local villagers were interviewed regarding elephant use of agricultural areas and instances of conflict. Data were analyzed using single-season and multi-season (dynamic) occupancy models. A single-season occupancy model applied to data from 139 partially or wholly forested grid cells estimated that 0.57 of grid cells were used by elephants. Dynamic occupancy models fit to data from interviews across 158 grid cells estimated that monthly use of non-forested, human-dominated areas over the preceding year varied between 0.43 and 0.82 with a minimum in February and maximum in October. Seasonal patterns of crop raiding by elephants coincided with monthly elephant use of human-dominated areas, and serious instances of human–wildlife conflict were common. Efforts to mitigate human–elephant conflict in Nepal are likely to be most effective if they are concentrated during August through December when elephant use of human-dominated landscapes and human–elephant conflict are most common.

Monitoring and controlling ovarian activity in elephants

Both Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants are important keystone, umbrella and flagship species. Paradoxically, world population numbers of both species are declining in many of their natural ranges due mainly to poaching, while over population of elephants in some areas is resulting in serious human-elephant conflict, and modifications of natural habitats that impact biodiversity. Understanding mechanisms of reproductive control is vital to effective population management, and for that reason significant advances have been made in endocrine and ultrasonographic monitoring techniques, particularly in studies of elephants ex situ. However, there remains a need to develop new methods to control ovarian activity, both for enhancing and inhibiting reproduction, to maintain population numbers at levels that ensure species survival and their ability to safely cohabitate with humans and other species. We present an overview of reproductive monitoring methods and how they have contributed to our knowledge of elephant reproductive biology, as well as their application for in situ and ex situ conservation purposes.

Chilli-briquettes modify the temporal behaviour of elephants, but not their numbers

AbstractCrop loss to foraging elephants is one of the most significant causes of conflict between people and elephants in areas where wild elephants share resources with people. Effective solutions to reduce the effects of human–elephant conflict on local livelihoods are thus essential to foster coexistence between elephants and people. We assessed the effectiveness of chilli-briquettes (bricks made of dry chilli, elephant dung and water) in altering elephants use of space in the eastern Okavango Panhandle, Botswana. We burned > 600 briquettes during the night over a 2-month period to test five treatments: frequent burning of (1) chilli and (2) chilli-free briquettes, occasional burning of (3) chilli and (4) chilli-free briquettes, and (5) a control treatment. Using camera traps and footprint surveys we assessed the number of elephants that used experimental sites, and the times at which they did so. We found elephants changed their movement behaviour from predominantly nocturnal to diurnal in areas where chilli-briquettes were burned throughout the night; however, there was no difference in the mean numbers of individuals between treatments with and without chillies. In other words, chilli-briquettes had a repellent but not a deterrent effect on elephants, keeping them away only at times when chilli-briquettes were smouldering. Based on these findings we recommend the use of chilli-briquettes as a method to deter elephants in the short term. In the long term, chilli-briquettes should be applied in combination with other larger-scale mitigation approaches, such as land management and cooperative community-based tools.

Residents’ perceptions of human–elephant conflict: case study in Bahundangi, Nepal

Human–elephant conflict (HEC) has created detrimental impacts to the residents of Bahundangi in eastern Nepal. This agricultural community is located in the north-east region of Jhapa District and is the principal point of entry for elephants from West Bengal, India. The impacts are widespread on agricultural lands, household livelihoods, personal property, and security. This study explores residents’ impacts via a qualitative approach whereby locals describe narratives about the state of HEC in their community. This method allows for further probing of the issues and identifies themes to be utilized as the next step to build assessments. Six focus group discussions were conducted among different stakeholders. Five themes were identified which were divided into ten subthemes. Results illustrated a range of opinions and were largely correlated based on where houses were located. Collectively, participants were troubled with the status quo and vented their frustration about the lack of commitment, coordination, and elephant controls by the government. Also, concerns were further emphasized about the increase in conflict intensity which has exacerbated annually. HEC issue has been deeply entrenched and needs a multipronged strategy for conflict mitigation. Results should assist policy and decision makers with respect to implementation of strategic measure for conflict alleviation.

A Spanner in the Works: Human–Elephant Conflict Complicates the Food–Water–Energy Nexus in Drylands of Africa

The two major conservation issues for drylands of Africa are habitat loss or degradation and habitat fragmentation, largely from agriculture, charcoal production, and infrastructural development. A key question for management is how these landscapes can retain their critical ecological functions and services, while simultaneously supporting resilient livelihoods. It is a clear nexus question involving food (agriculture), water and energy (fuelwood), which is complicated by human-wildlife conflicts. While these could appear disparate issues, they are closely connected in dryland forest landscapes of Africa where elephants occur close to areas of human habitation. For instance, crop failure, whether due to weather or wildlife damage, is a key driver for rural farmers seeking alternative livelihoods and incomes, one of the commonest being charcoal production. Similarly, heavy reliance on wood-based energy often leads to degradation of wildlife habitat, which heightens competition with wildlife for food and water, increasing the possibility of crop-raiding. So, for multifunctional landscapes where elephants occur in close proximity with humans, any food-water-energy nexus activities towards achieving sustainability and resilience should consider human-elephant conflicts. Here, we broach these food-water-energy nexus issues with a focus on dryland areas of Africa and human-elephant conflicts. We highlight an ongoing study attempting to address this nexus holistically by employing a climate-smart agriculture and agro-forestry based design, augmented by an elephant deterrent study and an eco-charcoal production venture.

A stakeholder assessment of human–elephant conflict in Benin

A stakeholder assessment of human–elephant conflict in Benin