Human Conflict Research Articles

Understanding barriers and benefits to adopting elephant coexistence practices in oil palm plantation landscapes in Lower Kinabatangan, Sabah

Oil palm managers are one of the key stakeholders who could help strengthen efforts to protect elephants in the landscape. We used a Theory of Change (ToC) approach to hypothesize potential barriers and benefits to managers adopting best practise. We conducted two workshopss with more than 60 participants to better understand managers’ perceptions of Human Elephant Conflict (HEC) and their willingness to adopt better wildlife management practices. The workshops confirmed that some of the outcomes we perceived in the original ToC, including security issues, false accusations, negative perceptions by the international community and crop damage, were affecting their willingness to promote coexistence in their plantation. However, we also uncovered other potential barriers and opportunities to promote coexistence, including international and national standards that do not provide enough technical and practical guidance for all levels, expensive monitoring costs, and inconsistent collaboration among industry players and between government and non-government agencies. Our initial findings suggest that new attitudes and perceptions have not been explored before and may be critical for manager engagement and adoption of best practices for HEC, as well as the identification of new audiences that would need to be engaged to be successful in achieving elephant conservation goals.

Snow leopard - human conflict as a conservation challenge - a review

Human conflict with large carnivores continues to be a great conservation challenge, and conflict with snow leopards (Panthera uncia) has been studied to understand causes and propose mitigation schemes. While the nature of snow leopard-human conflict is similar in most cases, reported studies have been case- and area-specific with mitigation strategies not necessarily based on a synthesis of relevant literature. We reviewed snow leopard literature published from 1970-2020 to identify the main drivers of human-snow leopard conflict (HSLC) and describe conservation and conflict mitigation strategies commonly employed. Based on 47 relevant peer-reviewed articles, review papers, book chapters, project reports, and other grey literature, we identified four major conflict domains: livestock management-related, socio-economic/human-related, ecological, and policy-related. Most articles suggested more than one conflict mitigation scheme. Three conflict mitigation domains – preventive, supportive, and compensatory – were widely reflected in the snow leopard-human conflict literature. The most commonly reported mitigation schemes included: 1) building or predator-proofing corrals; 2) training shepherds and improving livestock guarding; 3) livestock insurance schemes; 4) compensation for livestock predation; 5) capacity building, education, and awareness programs; and 6) improved breeding and use of guard dogs. Future management efforts need to tailor their approach depending on cultural, economic, and ecological circumstances.

Observed and forecasted changes in land use by polar bears in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas, 1985–2040

Monitoring changes in the distribution of large carnivores is important for managing human safety and supporting conservation. Throughout much of their range, polar bears (Ursus maritimus) are increasingly using terrestrial habitats in response to Arctic sea ice decline. Their increased presence in coastal areas has implications for bear-human conflict, inter-species interactions, and polar bear health and survival. We examined observed trends in land use over three decades by polar bears in the southern Beaufort Sea (SB) and Chukchi Sea (CS) where bears have traditionally spent most of the year on the sea ice. Using data from 408 adult females fitted with satellite radio-collars, we examined trends in the annual proportion of bears coming onshore (hereafter referred to as “percent of bears”) during the summer for ≥ 21 days, arrival and departure dates, duration spent onshore and relationships with sea ice metrics. We then estimated future land use through 2040 by extrapolating trends and by combining observed relationships between land use and sea ice with projections of future sea ice from an ensemble of earth system models. The observed percent of bears summering onshore and their duration onshore was correlated with the percent of open water that occurred within their population’s range between July and October. As sea ice declined, the percent of bears summering onshore increased from ∼5–30% in the SB and ∼10–50% in the CS and duration onshore increased by > 30 days to 60–70 days in both populations. Using a range of greenhouse gas emission scenarios and adjustments for faster than forecasted sea ice loss we estimated that 50–62% of SB and 79–88% of CS bears will spend 90–108 and 110–126 days onshore during summer in the SB and CS, respectively, by 2040. Sea ice projections varied little between greenhouse gas emission scenarios prior to 2040 but diverged thereafter. Observed and forecasted increases in polar bear land occupancy puts more bears in proximity to human activities and settlements for longer durations while extending the lack of access to their primary prey. Because human conflict is one of the primary factors affecting the conservation of large carnivores worldwide, mitigation of bear-human interactions on land will be an increasingly important component of polar bear conservation.

1960년대 과학소설의 젠더와 이상사회에 대한 사고실험

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the thought experiment on the gender and utopia in Left Hand of Darkness by Ursula K. Le Guin and The Perfect Society by Moon Younsung. Both of these novels were published in the 1960s, sharing the topic: gender and utopia. Even if the authors have different cultural and gender backgrounds, they wrote their works under the social background of the 1960s, when the Cold War and the Freedom movements severely conflicted. Besides, more fundamentally speaking, both of them recognized the function of science fiction: thought experiment. By using thought experiment, Le Guin suggests the possibility of accepting cultural and gender diversity. Moon Younsung criticizes the oppressive contemporary Korean society and asserts human conflicts would not be eradicated without accepting diversity.

Determining baselines and trends of Eastern chimpanzees and forest elephants in a Central African protected area after civil strife

Protected areas are crucial to safeguard Sub-Saharan Africa’s extraordinary and abundant megafauna. In many of these areas, instability has derailed conservation efforts and impeded adequate wildlife monitoring. Discovered in 2004, Eastern chimpanzees are found in the Central Uele Basin in northern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) within the Bili-Uéré Protected Areas Complex (BUPAC), the largest contiguous protected area in the country. BUPAC is threatened by habitat destruction, mining, wild meat trade, and insecurity. BUPAC chimpanzees are part of the largest remaining continuous population of the species in Africa; they are also being behaviourally unique. Forest elephants were frequent in the 1960′s in the BUPAC but have declined significantly up to 2004–2007. We used line transects to estimate Eastern chimpanzee and forest elephant density in the BUPAC core area in 2016 and 2019 and compared these with the 2004–2007 surveys. A total of 37 and 137 two km long line transects were systematically placed in 5,841 km2 and 6,176 km2 survey areas in 2016 and 2019, respectively. We found that chimpanzee density did not change during the two survey periods but indicators for forest elephant density decreased eight-fold. Human activities were detected mainly along the core area periphery in both survey years, where they overlapped with centres of animal activity. The stable high density of chimpanzees is a positive outcome for the core BUPAC. However, despite being a conservation priority area that has received relatively intensified protection, declining forest elephant numbers are likely to reflect the high number of human conflict hotspots in vicinity as well as the increasing human population density around the core area. We propose by elevating the core area to National Park whilst strengthening on the ground enforcement and management structures as well as legal measures against poaching might ensure the long-term survival of such an important area in Africa.

The UN voluntary compact and peacekeeping abuse: assessing a soft law solution for sexual exploitation and abuse

ABSTRACT In 2017, to address the increasingly visible and prevalent occurrence of peacekeeper sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) of civilians under their protection, the UN Secretary-General created a Voluntary Compact on state behaviour. As of 2020, 103 states signed the agreement. Building on the robust literatures of human rights law, sexual abuse, and conflict, I examine whether signing the Voluntary Compact has any relationship with the levels of reported abuse, punishing accused SEA perpetrators, and funding victim relief efforts. Through quantitative analysis of annual reports of reports of SEA and punishment actions from the UN Conduct in Field Missions unit 2007–2019, I find that Troop Contributing Countries that signed were more likely to issue national-level punishments in cases of severe abuse and to contribute to victim funding. However, there is not a clear finding of any reduction of reported abuse following signature. I conclude by discussing the Voluntary Compact as a mixed-success story for soft international law so far. Given its lack of teeth, this finding is important as the UN and other international organisations continue to prevent and punish peacekeeper SEA and use nonbinding international law.

Climate Change and Homicide: Global Analysis of the Moderating Role of Information and Communication Technology

Abstract The link between climate change and human conflict has received substantial attention in academic research using different measures of “conflict”; however, it is yet to interpret interpersonal violence in terms of homicide. This study takes a global perspective to investigate how climate change, typically represented by temperature and precipitation, directly and indirectly affects national homicide rates across countries. From longitudinal archival data from 171 countries from 2000 to 2018, we detect a direct and positive relationship between higher temperatures and homicide, whereas an indirect pathway between wetter climate and homicide through the occurrence of more natural hazards has also been shown in our empirical results. The relationship between climate change and homicide can be moderated by the level of information and communication technologies (ICT). We conclude that the development of ICT contributes to building the countries’ resilience to climate change with better information and communication technologies to help alleviate the negative impacts of climate change on homicide.

GREAT OPPORTUNITIES OF A SMALL GENRE (EXAMPLE OF FARID EDGU'S STORIES)

This article provides information about the work of contemporary Turkish writer Farid Edgu and analyses selected short stories. The stories analysed are taken from the short stories collections "Av" ("Hunting", 1967), "İşe Deniz, Maria" ("Here is the sea, Maria", 1999). The author also briefly mentions major Western and Turkish literary figures who have influenced the writer's work, and gives an idea of the general characteristics of their style. In particular, despite the fact that some of Farid Edgu's stories are very short, there is a deep philosophical meaning in their essence. In Turkish literary studies, such works are referred to as "minimal öykü" (minimal story). One of the most important aspects of Edgu's minimal stories is that they focus more on the situation than on the story. The works such as "Death of the Executioner" ("Cellad'ın Ölümü"), "Unexpected Guest" ("Beklenmeyen Konuk"), "In the Dark" ("Karanlıkta"), "If Only" ("Keşke") and "Thought" ("Hayalhane") are reviewed in this article. In these stories an attempt is made to reveal great possibilities of small genre and philosophical essence of life. In this sense one can conclude that the transfer of a small event or situation onto a large pictorial canvas is the main feature of Farid Edgu's style. In addition, the symbolic plot, symbolic image, symbolic dialogues, and their expression in a new method are the leading features of modern Turkish storytelling. Another unique feature of Farid Edgu's style is that he has convincingly highlighted human conflict situations such as tragedy, rebellion, intolerance and intransigence in all their complexity in a series of stories. The writer has made a great contribution to the development of figurative prose style and at the same time to the development of the "minimal story ("minimal öykü") genre in Turkish storytelling, making effective use of metaphor typical of Orientalist literature. The opinion of the Turkish literary critics, who have studied the works of Farid Edgu and have at times engaged in a debate with him, has also been taken into consideration. The article concludes with a summary of the unique aspects of the author's works and stories.

Human-wildlife conflict and community perceptions towards wildlife conservation in and around Wof-Washa Natural State Forest, Ethiopia

BackgroundHuman-wildlife conflict (HWC) is forecasted to increase globally in the vicinity of protected areas and covers various dimensions. It occurs in several different contexts and involves a range of animal taxonomic groups where the needs and requirements intersect with humans’ needs and development. More often, human-monkey conflict occurs in developing countries and is amongst the main threats to biodiversity conservation in these regions. Grivet monkeys are slender agile monkeys of the genus Cercopithecus. This study was conducted to investigate the status of human grivet monkey conflict and the attitude of local communities towards grivet monkey conservation in and around Wof-Washa Natural State Forest (WWNSF), Ethiopia from September 2017 to May 2018. A questionnaire survey (143 respondents) was used to study the human-grivet monkey conflict and its conservation status.ResultsThe majority of respondents (male = 67.1%; female = 74.1%) were not supporting grivet monkey conservation due to the troublesome crop-damaging effect of the animal. Respondents having settlements/farmland nearer to the forest have significantly negative perceptions towards grivet monkey conservation than those far from it. The majority of respondents opined that eradication/relocation of grivet monkeys and financial compensation are the options to mitigate human-grivet monkey conflict. Based on the questionnaire result, 42.5 ± SD 8.68 of respondents in all villages elucidated that the main cause of crop damage by grivet monkeys was habitat degradation.ConclusionIn the study area, Human-Grivet Monkey Conflict (HGMC) is exacerbated by the encroachment of local communities into the forest area, exploitation of resources that would be used by grivet monkeys, and enhanced crop damage by grivet monkeys. As a result grivet monkeys have been persecuted as a consequence of crop damage. This was due to the negative attitude developed from human perspective. Thus, awareness creation education programs and feasible crop damage prevention techniques need to be implemented.

Annotations and suggestions on elephant proof trenches to reduce human elephant conflicts in Coimbatore forest division South India

The structural backbone of India is agriculture. Agriculture encounters more conflicts and one among them is the human-elephant conflict. Traditional agricultural system is declining due to modernisation and urbanization and all the forest covers are being converted into human areas. Reduce forest cover and irregular rainfall and drastic climatic changes are much influencing the animals especially the elephants to enter into the human areas for food and water leading to human-elephant conflict. Though the State government and Forest department are necessary steps to trim down the elephant invading issues in Coimbatore forest division, the problem is still persisting. One best solution to calm down the upshot is the Elephant proof trench method. The present study found 510 damaged trenches by Foot survey method, analysed the effectiveness of Elephant Proof Trench (EPT) by Questionnaire method from the village people in the vicinity of forest fringes and collected all previous available conflict data from the forest department.
 Major human-elephant conflict incidences happened during March and October, high during the rainy seasons. Possibly elephants prefer to raid crops during these seasons for accessing sodium and minerals found in the crops. The present study reveals that Elephant Proof Trench reduced 73% of the elephant visits and 58% of crop damages. We also found EPT minimised the economic loss (58%), human deaths (75%) and elephant death incidences (82%) in the Coimbatore forest division. The minimum loss noted was also only because of the poorly maintained trenches. Hence, it is clear that, effectiveness of the Elephant Proof Trench will be most reliable, if trenches are maintained in a well regular manner. These results will help in the better conservation planning and management of forest ecosystem in future which will not have the human elephant conflicts again.
 Key words: Elephant proof trench, Human elephant conflict, Forest ecosystem, Agriculture

Effects of supplementation with climate-smart feeds on camel weight gain during drought

Camels are very resilient and can survive up to 14 days without water. They can also keep producing milk when other livestock succumb during drought. This makes camel the suitable animal to harness for climate change. Currently, there are no formulated camel feeds for feeding camels during the drought when the shrubs and vegetation dries up. This has led to conflicts between camel herders and crop farmers. In the recent past as recent as this year, 2022, it has resulted to loss of human lives and camels in an alarming rate. It is estimated that during drought there is loss of at least 100 lives pa as a result of this conflict. The loss of camels due to drought is hundreds of thousands. This study aimed at formulating and processing camel feeds with locally available ingredients which can be stored to be used during drought. The study was carried out at Garemara, Isiolo. The feeds were formulated with locally available materials including acacia pods and local grass. The feeds were analysed for the crude protein content and nutrient content. The camels were supplemented at a rate of 1.5 % of the body weight. Ten camels were purchased for the study. Five camels were supplemented while the other five camel were un supplemented. The camels were weighed fortnightly to monitor weight changes. The formulated camel feed has a crude protein of 17%. The camels supplemented with climate-smart feed increased the weight at a rate of 15% while those unsupplemented increased the weight at 10%. Climate smart feeds can be formulated and used to supplement camel feeds during drought and avert loss of camels and human conflicts.

A synthesis of human conflict with an African megaherbivore; the common hippopotamus

The common hippopotamus is an extant African megaherbivore that is relatively understudied by scientists and underfunded by conservation organisations. Conflict with people, however, is a major concern given the danger that hippos pose to human life. Moreover, very little is known about human–hippo conflict (HHC), and experimental fieldwork on mitigation methods has hardly been conducted. Here we conduct an exhaustive review of the primary and grey literature outlining how the conflict between people and hippos arises, the impacts of conflict on both human communities and hippo populations, and all known intervention measures. Our review highlights the effectiveness of barriers around crops, riparian buffer zones (that exclude cattle and crop planting), and payments for environmental services as tools to mitigate HHC. This study also highlights the knowledge gaps in HHC research, particularly the spatial scale of HHC, the lack of field experimental research on deterrents, and a paucity of knowledge on outcomes of projected climate change and HHC.

A Letter from the New Arthur Miller Society President

Trite phrases become so because they are true—another trite but true phrase in itself. Never has the phrase “I will never be able to fill his shoes” been truer as I succeed David Palmer as president of the Arthur Miller Society. Without causing him any embarrassment, I hope, in light of his humility and passion, I must write that his dedication and leadership are obvious. His attentive and thorough work, including his letters to the membership, his persistent and consistent pursuits in conference announcements, and creating panels for them, and his highly thoughtful and articulate writing and work are truly remarkable and invaluable.While I respect David’s decision to move on from the presidency, we are fortunate that he will continue to lead us for the various conferences. And, we will continue to be graced by his Miller and drama scholarship infused with a philosophical and political lens, adding much to our understanding and consideration of those writings.Let me also include here that without Stephen Marino and Sue Abbotson, who have been the cornerstones of both the society and the journal, providing their passion, time, and expertise, leading and shaping the current Miller studies in numerous ways, as so many of us know, we would not be where we are with the continuation of publishing scholarly and review articles, and the website and its numerous offerings invaluable to so many.I invite everyone to join me in thanking these three scholars, professors, and special people. I also invite everyone to continue participating in the society and contributing to the journal. As we all are fortunate to realize, Miller’s work continues its relevance eighty-six years after its genesis, with plays that address a myriad of issues, human conflicts, and dilemmas, many of which, sadly, persist.As so much in our world continues to change, what remains is Miller’s work in school curricula. In light of this, I invite everyone to engage in new ways to reach out to our colleagues in schools at every level around the country and even around the world, letting them know that what we do in the society, on the website, and with the journal is pertinent to their work as readers and teachers, that we value their full participation as we ourselves value continued learning and teaching, and that it is our aim to include their activities and interests in all of our enterprises.Finally, as the society carries on with its dedicated work with the website, conferences, and journal, I encourage all of you to pursue your own fine work on Miller, preparing conference papers and submitting your work—scholarly and teaching articles, and book and theater reviews—to the journal, as we continue to honor Arthur Miller’s lifetime of work.

Characterizing land use with night-time imagery: the war in Eastern Ukraine (2012–2016)

The ongoing military conflict in Eastern Ukraine has resulted in significant land use changes as well as economic shifts particularly in agricultural and industrial activities. The day/night band detectors on-board the Suomi-NPP Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite provides an opportunity to assess socio-economic impacts of human conflicts based on physical radiometric measurements. In this study, we show a near 50% decrease in night-time light activity in Donetsk and Luhansk (Donbass Region) from 2012 to 2016. Furthermore, by separating night-time light losses between areas inside official city boundaries and those outside, we illustrate the sensitivity to residential land-use types. A 43.5% of night-time light loss inside cities was attributed to residential areas and 17.5% registered outside of cities. Additionally, this separation showed considerable differences for night-time light losses attributed to industrial land-use types with higher losses occurring in regions outside of cities (36.5%) than regions inside cities (24%). The separation of night-time light losses inside and outside cities reveal considerable discrepancies in night-time light losses showing that considerable activity occurs outside of traditionally targeted urban activities. The results demonstrate night-time light losses are sensitive to proximity to civilian-residential populations, and highlight discrepancies between urban cores and their attached peripheries.

On the role of indirect translation in the history of news production

AbstractThis article aims to problematize the role of translation in news production as a result of the invisibility of indirect translation (ITr). In the first section, I argue that in journalistic translation ITr is not merely ‘hidden translation’ but rather ‘ignored translation’ as a consequence of the traditional status of the translational activity in journalism and because researchers can hardly find traces of ITr in news production, such as the name of sources, attributions, or paratexts. I then move on to discuss the importance of the various forms of translation in the emergence of journalism in the early modern period. Human conflicts and movement meant that news texts were recycled across Europe, often via ITr. News writers used various sources from different languages and adapted the texts taking into account political and cultural considerations. This establishes a link with contemporary journalism, as news articles are characterized by their multi-authored nature. In addition, translations can be embedded and are often circular rather than linear. In the concluding discussion, I suggest that journalistic translation research, including research into ITr, can benefit not only from interdisciplinary approaches, but also from incorporating historical aspects.

Human–elephant coexistence challenges in Myanmar: An analysis of fatal elephant attacks on humans and elephant mortality

Understanding the underlying causes behind human–elephant conflict (HEC)-driven mortality of humans and elephants will help improve both parties’ wellbeing. The objective of this study was to examine the temporal and spatial mortality patterns of humans and elephants and the influence of local attitudes, conflict factors and habitat factors on elephant poaching. We used the Myanmar Forest Department data from 2001 to 2020 for humans and 2011 to 2020 for elephants together with explanatory data on human attitudes, habitat, and conflict factors. Approximately seven persons were killed annually in elephant attacks, with a bias towards men. The annual mortality of elephants during the study period was on average 16 individuals, and most elephants were killed by humans. There was a significant relationship between the number of killed humans and human-killed elephants around HEC villages. Villages with more property damage exhibited a higher rate of human mortality, which also correlated with negative feelings of local people towards elephants. Elephant poaching was higher in villages with less suitable habitat available for elephant use. Human encroachment is an important cause of HEC, leading to human loss and forming the main threat to the survival of wild elephants. We suggest local involvement to ensure good governance in conflict resolution and mitigation strategies and to strengthen law enforcement.

Real-Time Short-Term Pedestrian Trajectory Prediction Based on Gait Biomechanics.

The short-term prediction of a person’s trajectory during normal walking becomes necessary in many environments shared by humans and robots. Physics-based approaches based on Newton’s laws of motion seem best suited for short-term predictions, but the intrinsic properties of human walking conflict with the foundations of the basic kinematical models compromising their performance. In this paper, we propose a short-time prediction method based on gait biomechanics for real-time applications. This method relays on a single biomechanical variable, and it has a low computational burden, turning it into a feasible solution to implement in low-cost portable devices. We evaluate its performance from an experimental benchmark where several subjects walked steadily over straight and curved paths. With this approach, the results indicate a performance good enough to be applicable to a wide range of human–robot interaction applications.

Livelihood, conflict and tourism: An assessment of livelihood impact in Sundarbans, West Bengal

Sundarbans delta is renowned as the largest mangrove forest reserve in the world with distinct species of wild flora and fauna. It acts as a source of livelihood for several communities residing in the vicinity. The indigenous plants, extraction of honey and catching fish from rivers, lakes and rivulets have good economic value in surroundings markets. The local community were highly attached to their land, air, water, animals and plants of the area which have simultaneously became part of their culture and tradition over the years. The aim of the study is to identify and analyse the community's perception about Sundarbans and impacts on their livelihood along with the threat faced by Sundarbans. The study is based on primary survey following secondary data for data collection while descriptive and ethnographic methods were used to get the desired outcome. Post discussion, it was concluded that apart from human and animal conflict, the community is also facing livelihood conflict as the shift has registered over the years. The water level has continued to rise and submerge much of the areas of Sundarbans. Tourism is highly appreciated, but unregulated and irresponsible tourists are the major concern for wild floral and faunal species in Sundarbans ecosystem. The people living there don't have capacity to do other work except cultivation and fishing. The area specific approach and regional plan for the region is the need of hour as the region is suffering from multiple problems threat to tiger conservation, increased salinity of the water and erosion of embankment.

Examining the Relationship between Visitors Wildlife Value Orientation and Risk Perceptions: A study of the Borneo Pygmy Elephant in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo

Recently, there has been a growing interest in studying human-elephant conflicts; however, in the case of the Borneo Pygmy elephant, which has only been found in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo has not been thoroughly investigated. Recent studies shows the number of elephants killed as a result of human conflict is on the rise. This study intends to examine the relationship between visitor Wildlife Value orientation (domination and mutualism) towards Borneo Pygmy elephant risk perceptions. 401 survey data was collected from on-site visitors, and PLS-SEM analyses revealed that domination has a significant relationship with risk perception of Borneo Pygmy elephants. Mutualism, on the other hand, does not appear to be related to risk perceptions, according to the study. The findings are beneficial to policymakers in developing programmes that encourage visitors to view the endangered Borneo pygmy elephants in a more positive light, to reducing human-elephant conflicts.

Glimmers of hope in large carnivore recoveries

In the face of an accelerating extinction crisis, scientists must draw insights from successful conservation interventions to uncover promising strategies for reversing broader declines. Here, we synthesize cases of recovery from a list of 362 species of large carnivores, ecologically important species that function as terminal consumers in many ecological contexts. Large carnivores represent critical conservation targets that have experienced historical declines as a result of direct exploitation and habitat loss. We examine taxonomic and geographic variation in current extinction risk and recovery indices, identify conservation actions associated with positive outcomes, and reveal anthropogenic threats linked to ongoing declines. We find that fewer than 10% of global large carnivore populations are increasing, and only 12 species (3.3%) have experienced genuine improvement in extinction risk, mostly limited to recoveries among marine mammals. Recovery is associated with species legislation enacted at national and international levels, and with management of direct exploitation. Conversely, ongoing declines are robustly linked to threats that include habitat modification and human conflict. Applying lessons from cases of large carnivore recovery will be crucial for restoring intact ecosystems and maintaining the services they provide to humans.