Human Approach Test Research Articles

A meta-analysis approach to evaluate the effects of early group housing on calf performance, health and behavior during the preweaning period

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of early group housing on the performance, health, and behavior of dairy calves during the pre-weaning period using systematic and meta-analysis approaches. Peer-reviewed articles written in English that compared dairy calves individually and group-housed with performance, health, or behavior outcomes were collected from Web of Science, PubMed and CabDirect databases. The resulting articles (n = 850) underwent a PRISMA 4-step appraisal process, resulting in a final sample of 51 articles containing 85 studies. The weighted or standardized mean differences between individually and group [pair or group (with > 2 calves)] housed calves were analyzed for each variable using the Der-Simonian and Laird methods. Heterogeneity between calf housing systems was evaluated by the chi-squared test and I2 statistics. A meta-regression analysis was conducted to identify categorical covariate effects for variables with high heterogeneity. Most of the studies included in this review evaluated female calves (45.8%) weaned at 8 weeks old (52.6%). Housing systems were mainly paired housing (55.3%), followed by groups of 3 to 6 calves (30.65) and groups of 7 to 15 calves (4.7%). We did not find studies with comparable outcomes for more robust health parameters (as occurrence of diseases), only blood parameters, that were not influenced by the housing system (P > 0.05). But, weight gain and feed intake parameters were higher (P < 0.05) in group-housed calves. Through the meta-regression, we found that average daily gain was positively affected (P < 0.05) by the group housing in studies with calves housed in small pen areas (<1.5 m2 per calf). Group-housed calves presented more active behaviors (feeding and playing) and less stress-related behaviors (self-grooming and interacting with the pen) than individually-housed calves. The behavioral tests most used were novel object, human approach, novel environment, and social tests. Individually-housed calves presented fewer vocalizations on these tests and spent more time interacting with humans during the human approach test than group-housed calves. Our findings provide consistent evidence that group housing improves the welfare of dairy calves; however, the effects on health parameters are still scarce and unclear.

Leadership amongst pigs when faced with a novel situation

Leadership is a risky behaviour that can impact individuals and groups. Leaders, i.e. individuals who perform or initiate a task while other individuals in the group follow, have been studied in different contexts, but there is still a lack of understanding on the role of individual characteristics that may predispose them to become leaders, such as dominance and personality. In particular, the characteristics of leaders in domestic animal populations has been poorly examined. We studied leadership within 32 groups of young pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus, n = 366 individuals). Leadership was assessed during a group-based fear test (Human Approach Test) which was repeated three times. The first individual per group to touch the person was identified as leader. We assessed repeatability of leadership and characteristics of leaders as compared to followers. Leadership was marginally repeatable, with 6 out of 26 groups having a consistent single leader across all tests. Females had odds 4.13 times greater than males of being a leader, while there was no effect of body weight (a proxy of dominance) or coping style on leadership. The results indicate a similarity with wild populations, in which females lead the herd even though the males, which are superior in body weight, are often dominant.

Dairy cow personality: Consistency in a familiar testing environment

Personality affects the behavior of dairy cows in response to various situations on farm, such as novel or social challenges, which can affect the welfare of individual cows. Personality traits are evaluated through behavioral testing, typically in unfamiliar environments, but this can be a time-consuming process. Using a novel object test (NOT) and a forced human approach test (FHAT), we tested 222 individual dairy cows and retested a subset of cows (n = 78) 8 mo afterward. The aim was to see if personality traits can be identified in a familiar environment and if traits were consistent in between test and retest. Principal component analysis was used to identify personality traits. Extracted components (personality traits) were named according to determining variables (loadings <−0.63 or >0.63). Based on identified personality traits we calculated the intraclass correlation (ICC) coefficient and the differences between personality trait in test and retest to assess consistency. We identified 3 personality traits from NOT measurements (“explorative,” “boldness,” and “sociable”) explaining 85% of the variance and one trait from behavioral measurements in the FHAT (“trusting”) explaining 74% of the variance. Mean ICC of 0.6 with a standard deviation of 0.18 shows that although traits are consistent at herd level, cows react individually in stressful situations. As both tests were carried out in a familiar environment and results are similar to other studies that used unfamiliar environments, we can conclude that tests can be performed in a familiar environment.

Familiar versus unfamiliar: Revealing the complexity of sociability in pigs

Social behaviours are fundamental to gregarious animals and a dynamic force driving social structures, conflicts and cooperation. As a personality trait, sociability is defined as the individual reaction to the presence or absence of conspecifics and the motivation to associate with them. Research on sociability has been scarce compared to other personality traits, thus limiting our understanding of individual social behaviours which could potentially reflect it. To tackle this issue, we used a comprehensive approach, combining individual testing and Social Network Analysis. We designed a Novel Peer Test (NPT) to investigate sociability towards an unfamiliar conspecific. We conducted the NPT on 80 male domestic pigs at 6 weeks of age divided into 5 replicated groups over time. Each pig was confronted with an unfamiliar conspecific, separated by a fence in a familiar environment. To complement the NPT, we performed established personality tests, including an Open Field Test, Novel Object Test, Human Approach Test. All tests were repeated after two weeks. Pigs’ social interactions in the home pen were recorded and used for Social Network Analysis, and the associated weighted degree and betweenness centrality were calculated. Through Principal Component Analysis, we found that the NPT highlighted pigs’ motivation to interact with an unfamiliar conspecific, hence an aspect of sociability, and independently from novelty seeking. Additionally, the NPT may be a suitable personality test given that the behavioural profiles of the pigs were consistent over time. Pigs’ network positions in the home pen for non-agonistic interactions did not predict behaviours in the NPT. Specifically, there were no links between nosing and play during the NPT and nosing and play in the home pen. This may be due to the different contexts, as the social interactions occurred dyadically with an unfamiliar conspecific during the NPT while the social networks are based on unrestrained social interactions with a group of familiar pen-mates. In contrast, walking close to the fence separating the focal and novel pig during the NPT was predicted by agonistic interactions in the home pen. This behaviour is ambiguous to interpret since it additionally loaded on the extracted sociability trait, thus, it could be driven by sociability and/or aggression. Understanding pigs’ sociability will have implications for their welfare, highlighting the need for an adequate social environment to properly express different levels of sociability.

Evaluating the impact of gypsum as a novel bedding material on broiler performance, foot pad health, and fear response

Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) gypsum is a byproduct of the coal-fired power plant process commonly used to remove sulfur dioxide emissions from the flue gas. FGD gypsum has numerous industrial, agricultural, and environmental applications. This study aimed to explore a novel approach involving the use of FGD gypsum combined with different litter treatments as bedding for broiler production. It focused on performance metrics, including adjusted feed conversion ratio (AFCR) and average body weight (BW), foot pad dermatitis (FPD), and fear response over 5 consecutive flocks. A total of 1,800 one-day-old Ross 708 chicks were randomly assigned to 24 pens (75 birds/pen), divided into 6 treatment groups (4 pens/treatment), with 5 replications and raised until 42 d old (d). Treatments were gypsum that was decaked (D), rotovated (E), and rotovated then windrowed (F) between flocks. Control treatments using pine shavings were decaked (A), rotovated (B), and windrowed postrotovating (C). AFCR, average BW, and mortality were used as a measure of production. Foot pad dermatitis scores were taken on d42 using a scale of 0 (absence), 1 (mild), and 2 (severe). Response to observer and human approach test were used to measure fear response. Data were analyzed as a 2-way ANOVA (Proc Glimmix) for the main effects of bedding type and litter treatment. Means were identified using Tukey's HSD. No effect of bedding type or litter treatment was found for AFCR, BW, or mortality. FPD scores 2 and 1, were higher with pine shavings than gypsum (P = 0.01 and P = 0.01, respectively). While FPD scores 0 were higher for gypsum than the pine shaving (P = 0.01). No difference in fear response was found among birds raised on any of the gypsum litter treatments and any of the pine shaving litter treatments. Overall, the use of gypsum as bedding results in equivalent production and fear response to pine shavings, while increasing FPD quality when compared to pine shaving.

The effects of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug on the behavioural and physiological parameters of beef cows and calves assisted at calving

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may be administered to the cow or the calf as a pain mitigation strategy to combat the negative impacts of injury or trauma associated with a difficult calving. However, the effects of NSAIDs on beef cows’ and calves’ behaviour related to pain and cow-calf bonding after an assisted calving have not been studied. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the effects of meloxicam administered to beef cows and calves after an assisted calving by measuring differences in behaviours associated with pain and cow-calf bonding, and physiological parameters associated with pain. Twenty-three cow-calf pairs assisted at calving were randomly allocated to two medication groups, meloxicam (Metacam®, 20 mg/ml, 0.5 mg/kg body weight, Boehringer Ingelheim, Ingelheim, Germany) or placebo (0.025 ml/kg). Cow blood samples for serum haptoglobin concentration and thermal images of the vulva were taken within 10 minutes after calving and 24±1 hours after calving. Calf blood samples for L‐lactate concentration and thermal images of the head were taken at birth and images repeated at 24±1 hours after birth. Blood samples for serum IgG concentration were taken at 24±1 hours after birth. After at-birth sample collection and treatment administration, the cow-calf pairs were placed in separate box stalls, and behaviours were video recorded for 24±1 hours. A human approach test and a separation test were performed after the 24±1 hour period. Descriptive statistics, multivariable linear and logistic regression models, and non-parametric tests were used to analyze the data. There were no significant differences between meloxicam and placebo groups for serum IgG concentration, haptoglobin concentration, or changes in temperature in the cows’ vulva or calves’ head. Additionally, there were no significant differences between meloxicam and placebo groups for the cows’ behaviours (i.e., time spent lying in sternal recumbency, standing, feeding, self-grooming, grooming the calf, and frequency of tail flicking, tail raising, and pressing against the box stall). Calves treated with meloxicam were more active (P=0.04) and played more (P=0.01) than placebo calves. No other behaviours (i.e., time spent lying in sternal recumbency, attempting to stand, standing, walking, being in a nursing position, investigating, and frequency of approaching the cow) were significantly different between calves treated with meloxicam or placebo. No significant difference (P=0.83) in bonding behaviours was identified for cows and calves treated with meloxicam or a placebo. The anti-inflammatory effects of meloxicam in calves after an assisted calving may improve calf welfare.

High variation in the response of calves to a low-dose lipopolysaccharide challenge is associated with early-life measurements

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenges are commonly used in animal studies as a model for infection with gram-negative bacteria and innate immune activation. We used a low-dose LPS challenge for evaluating interindividual variation in innate immune responses in calves. This was part of a larger study aimed at predicting interindividual variation in feed efficiency in veal calves by variation in feeding motivation, digestion, metabolism, immunology, and behavioral traits. However, due to unexpected high mortality, this LPS challenge was performed in 32 calves rather than in 130 calves, which was initially intended in that larger study, and the 32 calves subjected to the LPS challenge were removed from that larger study. The objective of this short communication is to report the effects of a low-dose LPS challenge in those 32 calves and to examine whether the high variation in calves' responses to LPS could be explained by parameters related to feeding motivation, digestion, behavior, and immunology measured in early life. Thirty-two male Holstein-Friesian calves of Dutch origin were intravenously injected with LPS (0.05 μg/kg of body weight) at an age of 72 ± 0.6 d. Rectal temperature and respiratory frequency were recorded before injection and every hour after injection up to 6 h. In the 8 wk before the LPS challenge, measurements were performed related to general health, feeding motivation, digestion, behavior, and immunity. Following LPS administration, 3 calves died of shock, a fourth calf was euthanized because of severe symptoms of shock and 3 other calves were treated with corticosteroids to counteract observed symptoms of shock. Within the group of 25 relatively mild-responding calves, large interindividual variation in clinical responses to LPS was observed. The maximum increase in rectal temperature varied from 0.6 to 1.9°C and averaged 1.2 ± 0.39°C (coefficient of variation was 32%). The maximum increase in respiratory frequency varied from 16 to 132 bouts/min and averaged 60 ± 28 bouts/min (coefficient of variation was 48%). Little differences were found in early-life measurements between the 7 heavy and 25 mild responders, although heavy responders tended to have a better umbilical hernia score, and had a lower score in a human approach test (i.e., were less reactive) and lower presence of fecal pathogens. The maximum increase in rectal temperature correlated negatively with blood hemoglobin concentration at arrival of the calves at the facilities (r = −0.59) and in wk 4 (r = −0.53). The maximum increase in respiratory frequency correlated negatively with fecal color score (r = −0.43) and positively with fur score in wk 5 (r = 0.50). Overall, mortality (12.5%) and variation in clinical response was high after a low-dose LPS challenge in clinically healthy calves and some hematological and health measurements in early life were related to the clinical response of calves to LPS.

111 A Suspended Molasses Block Improves Post-Mixing Welfare of Gestating Sows

Abstract Most swine production systems in the US do not include access to environmental enrichment: an improvement in the biological functioning of captive animals resulting from modifications to their environment. Optimal enrichments such as straw, hay and silage are not acceptable due to manure system and biosecurity concerns. There remains a need to develop enrichment for pigs that is biologically relevant, safe for existing systems, biosecure, sustainable and cost effective. The aim of this study was to compare the behavior and welfare of sows over 2 weeks post-mixing when given access to a suspended molasses block (B - Barastoc Swine Block) or a metal chain (C). Three replicates of 36 LW × Yorkshire sows, balanced by parity, were mixed at d 42 post service in groups of 4, 6 or 8, with one of each group size per treatment. Groups were formed with equal numbers of sows from 2 large group pens, i.e., a group of 4 was formed using 2 sows from one pen, mixed with 2 sows from a second pen, and so on. Sow behavior and animal-based welfare measures were recorded 3 days before mixing, and d 1, 6 and 13 post-mixing. Welfare measures included tear stains, lesion scores, bursitis, shoulder sores, respiratory and cleanliness scores. Behavior included passive and active human-approach tests, where the human stood for 3 min against one wall of the pen to allow sows to approach, noting number to approach and touch the human and the latency to touch. Then at the end of the test, the human actively approached each sow in turn and touched the head of the sow, noting the response of the sow on a numerical scale. Data were analyzed using 2-way ANOVA with treatment and group size as factors. There were no treatment differences in bursitis, shoulder sores and respiratory scores, and no differences in time to approach and touch the human. However, B sows had smaller tear stains (d 6 and d 13, P &amp;lt; 0.001), decreased body lesion scores (d 1 and d 6, P &amp;lt; 0.05), and better body cleanliness scores (d 1, P &amp;lt; 0.05). Human approach test measures showed habituation over time, but B sows responded less to a human approaching and touching their head than C sows (d 6, P &amp;lt; 0.05). Groups of 6 had lowest tear stain scores (d 1, d 6 and d 13, P &amp;lt; 0.05) and were cleanest (d 13, P &amp;lt; 0.05). There was also a Group size*treatment interaction with groups of 6 having the lowest lesion scores in the C treatment, but the highest in the B treatment (d 1, d 6, and d 13, P &amp;lt; 0.05). The skin lesions scores indicate that aggression was lower in the pens with the blocks. Overall, the blocks improved sow welfare over the immediate 2-week post-mixing period, though group size may impact this.

Is the Familiar Human Approach Test a valid method for evaluating the quality of human-goat relationship in pasture-based systems?

A study was carried out to validate the Familiar Human Approach Test (FHAT) for the evaluation of the human-animal relationship (HAR) in goats at pasture. The FHAT originally proposed for sheep (AWIN Welfare Assessment Protocol) was modified to be adapted to goats. The validation of this modified version of FHAT was carried out by checking its convergent validity with the Latency to the First Contact Test (Latency; expressed in seconds), which was already developed, validated, and included in the AWIN Welfare Assessment Protocol for Goats to evaluate HAR for dairy goats kept indoors. Eighteen dairy goat farms were included in this study. The FHAT was performed during the grazing season at pasture by familiar assessors (i.e., farmers), while external assessors evaluated the reaction of goats to the routine gathering of animals by the farmer. The Latency was performed both by unfamiliar and familiar assessors during autumn-winter indoor housing. Farms were classified into four classes, based on goats' reactions to farmers at pasture: 1. Avoidance (withdrawal of the whole flock from the farmer, n= 4); 2. Approach (at least one goat allows the farmer to approach and/or follows the farmer; no physical interaction, n= 7); 3. Contact (at least one goat voluntarily approaches the farmer; contact lasts ≤3 seconds, n= 3); and 4. Acceptance (at least one goat accepts to be touched by the farmer; contact lasts >3 seconds, n= 4). Latency time was compared among the four classes. Latency was higher in the classes without contact (Avoidance and Approach) when compared to the classes with contact (Contact and Acceptance) between humans and goats. However, the differences among the classes were significant in response to the presence of the familiar assessor only [familiar assessor (P=0.016): Avoidance: 164.3 ± 114.83 s, Approach: 115.6 ± 127.04 s, Contact: 48.0 ± 40.95 s, Acceptance: 7.8 ± 5.44 s; unfamiliar assessor (P=0.631): Avoidance: 161.5 ± 159.96 s, Approach: 144.6 ± 122.35 s, Contact: 77.3 ± 39.88 s, Acceptance: 61.0 ± 67.38 s]. The four classes were then merged depending on the absence (Avoidance+Approach) or presence (Contact+Acceptance) of physical interaction between goats and farmers. Again, Latency time was significantly (133.3 ± 119.34 s vs 25.0 ± 32.20 s; P=0.006) and not significantly (150.7 ± 129.34 s vs 68.0 ± 53.63 s; P=0.328) different when performed by the familiar and unfamiliar assessors, respectively. The strong correlation between Latency to the familiar and unfamiliar assessors suggests that goats generalize their response to humans based on HAR quality. Results support the use of FHAT for the evaluation of HAR in goats raised in pasture-based systems.

Weaned piglet’s reactivity to humans, tonic immobility and behaviour in a spatial maze test is affected by gestating sows’ relationship to humans and positive handling at weaning

Fear of human can impact negatively offspring’s behaviour and cognition whereas early positive handling has positive impacts. The aim of this study was to evaluate the crossed effects of trans-generational transfer and familiarisation with human on piglets’ behaviour. Sows were classified into two categories (Fearful, n = 11 and Docile, n = 13) based on whether they avoided human contact or not during a human approach test at 71 days of gestation. Fear of human was not related to salivary cortisol levels of the sows (F =2.72, P = 0.10). Fearful sows’ piglets stood immobilized longer (Chisq= 6.24, P = 0.01), as well females (8.70, P = 0.003) during a tonic immobility test (TIT) at 7 days but not at 15 days. The behaviour of two male and two female piglets per sow (n = 96) was studied after weaning (28 days). We found no effect of sow’s reaction to human on piglets’ emotionality expressed during an open-field test (OFT) at 32–33 days. However, during a Human voluntary approach test (VHAT) piglets born from fearful sows were more fearful than piglets born from docile sows (Chisq=8.23, P = 0.004,). Half of the piglets (n = 48, 1 male and 1 female per sow) were then familiarised with human while the others received minimum contact. We found no main or crossed effect of sow’s reaction to human and piglet’s treatment on piglets’ emotionality during an OFT, nor on their exploratory behaviour during VHAT at 46–47 days. Piglets’ born from fearful sows were less attracted to human during VHAT2 (Chisq=8.33, P = 0.004) and familiarised piglets were more attracted (Chisq=15.05, P < 0.001). Piglets born from docile sows found the reward faster in a spatial maze test than those born from fearful sows. Both sows HAR and piglet familiarisation with human seemed to specifically affect human related behaviours without affecting their general emotionality, but also behaviour in a spatial maze test.

Training for a cognitive judgement bias task does not affect fear or telomere shortening in laying hens

For behavioural tests such as the cognitive judgement bias task (JBT), animals usually undergo weeks of training involving various elements, such as handling, social isolation and learning the task. These may influence their affective state and other welfare indicators. Here, we investigated the effects of training for a JBT on fear-related behaviour in laying hens and a potential welfare indicator – telomere shortening. Hens were trained for a JBT (N = 16, across 2 batches), or kept as controls (N = 16, across 2 batches) that received no training or training-related handling. Hens that reached the learning criterion (N = 14) were tested in six JBT test sessions. Before and after the trained hens received JBT training, blood was collected from all hens, and they were assessed for fear-related behaviour by being subjected to open field, human approach, and tonic immobility tests. Relative telomere lengths (RTL; i.e., ratio of telomeric repeats versus a single copy control) were obtained from blood samples with a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. As anticipation of the JBT sessions could affect the JBT outcome, we also recorded behavioural indicators of anticipation prior to each JBT test session. Except for an increased latency to first step in the open field test after training in the trained hens (t = 3.1, df=28, P = 0.012; conditional R2=0.59), no other fear-related behaviour significantly differed in either group (P > 0.05) and RTL was not affected. In addition, none of the anticipation indicators predicted the JBT test outcome. Contra to our hypotheses, welfare-related aspects may not be strongly affected by the JBT training. However, the enriched housing of the hens from both treatments might have minimised the effect of training on fear and telomere shortening, or training may have affected indicators other than the ones we investigated. We conclude that because JBT training and testing does not affect fear assessment and telomere shortening outcomes in hens housed in enriched housing conditions, the same individuals can be used in welfare assessments involving similar assessments. Our results also suggest that the JBT itself may be robust against the temporary affective states associated with anticipation.

Welfare and performance of finishing pigs on commercial farms: Associations with group size, floor space per pig and feed type

Based on data from a field survey of 85 Norwegian farms, we aimed to investigate associations of group size, floor space per pig and type of feed with selected welfare- and performance indicators in finishing pigs. On each farm, we registered the number of pigs per pen, floor space per pig (m2), and the type of feed used (dry feed: n = 42 farms; liquid feed: n = 43 farms), once for every farm between 10:00–12:00 h within the last three weeks before slaughter. Ten pigs per pen from eight pens per farm were randomly chosen for sampling of welfare indicators (bite marks on ears, body and tail, hernia, and movement disorders, and a human approach test). A subsample of 44 farms recorded their production data in the Norwegian Ingris database. These farm level data included daily weight gain, feed conversion ratio, and mean weight of the slaughtered pigs. The pen-level data were analysed using a using a mixed model, with group size and floor space per pig (m2) as fixed effects, type of feed (liquid vs. dry feed) as a categorical variable, and individual “farm” as a random effect. The farm-level data were analysed using a generalized model with Poisson distribution and the same fixed factors. The proportions of pigs with bite marks on ears (P < 0.001) and body (P < 0.001) and daily weight gain (P < 0.001) decreased with increasing group size whereas avoidance of a novel human increased (P < 0.001). The proportion of pigs with bite marks on the body (P = 0.019) decreased with increasing floor space per pig. Providing dry feed ad libitum in vertical feeders resulted in a greater proportion of pigs with bite marks on the ears (P = 0.010) and the body (P = 0.029) than providing liquid feed intermittently in long troughs, but daily weight gain was higher with dry feeding (P < 0.001). Overall, low proportions of pigs had hernias (1.1 ± 0.001%) and movement disorders (1.7 ± 0.2%). In conclusion, our findings indicate that except for an increased avoidance of a novel human in larger groups, the pigs had better welfare in larger groups in terms of lower proportion of bite marks. Finally, more floor space per pig and liquid feed in feed troughs were also associated with a lower proportion of bite marks. As our data were skewed towards smaller group sizes and densities were skewed towards the legislated minimum space allowance per pig, the implications are limited to the range of conditions presented in the study.

Is Toxoplasma gondii infection related to spatial problem solving and fear response in sheep?

Toxoplasma gondii (TG) is a protozoan tissue cyst forming parasite, with the potential to infect all warm-blooded animals including humans. Its importance in behaviour manipulation has been studied extensively in rodent models. There is however limited literature of TG effects on behaviour in other species. TG readily disseminates and forms cysts in muscle and neural tissue of sheep, and Australia’s estimated national prevalence of TG in lambs and sheep sits at 16% and 32%, respectively, posing a potential risk to human health, and food safety. Further, an outbreak of TG may result in large economic impacts on the Australian sheep industry. This study had two aims: To identify seroprevalence of TG within a commercial sheep flock in Southern New South Wales, Australia and to investigate the relationship between TG infection and sheep behaviour. Fifty crossbred ewes of varying ages were selected at random from a flock of non pregnant ewes. Blood samples from each sheep were tested for presence of TG antibodies using a modified agglutination test. Each sheep was subjected individually to spatial maze and a novel object/unfamiliar human approach tests over a five-week period. Modified agglutination testing revealed prevalence of antibodies in 24% of the tested sheep, with titre levels between 1/16–1/256. TG positive sheep were slower to solve a spatial maze than test negative sheep in the first week of testing. A significant decline in the number of “errors’ made while solving the maze in subsequent trials indicated that sheep readily learnt to solve the maze. Sheep showed more avoidance of a human than a novel object or dog bark, but avoidance was not related to TG infection. In conclusion, this study provided evidence of a relationship between TG infection and problem-solving behaviour in sheep. Fear response appear to be unrelated to effects of infection. Studies such as these allow us to observe how TG effects incidental hosts and if a variation in behaviour changes occurs between species.

Evaluation of Chute Exit, Novelty and Human Approach Tests in Mertolenga Beef Cattle

Livestock behavior and welfare are increasingly recognized to be related, not only to the animals' handling, but also with productivity. The present work was carried out at the Mertolenga Breed Testing Center and its objective was to evaluate the behavior of Mertolenga breed young bulls when exiting the chute, the reaction to novelty and human approach tests, as well as to understand if the responses between these tests are related. Twenty-nine Mertolenga-bred young bulls from 16 different farms, aged between 8 and 13 months, entered the study farm from the end of May to the beginning of June 2021. Data was collected on six different days and analyzed with the SAS® 9.4 software. Older animals showed a tendency to leave the chute more calmly, take longer to touch the novelty ball and to touch the ball less often, with a consequent reduction in the likelihood of playing with it. In the human approach test, animals that came out of the chute more calmly allowed the human to come closer. These behavior tests should be further studied on potential sires, so as to increase docility and manageability of autochthonous beef breeds.

The effects of part-time dam-contact and stepwise weaning and separation on the voluntary human approach behaviour of dairy calves

Dairy calves are commonly reared without contact with their dam, which facilitates a human-animal relationship based on close human contact and feeding. Dam-contact may negatively affect calves’ relationship with humans. The current study investigates the effect of dam-contact and weaning method on calves’ response to humans. A total of 69 dairy calves were allocated to one of three dam-contact treatments [Control (separated from dam after 24 h), Whole-day (housed with dam for 23 h/d), and Half-day (housed with dam for 10 h/d)]. Within each treatment, calves were allocated to one of two weaning treatments [Stepwise (weaning off milk at eight weeks, dam-separation/pen change at nine weeks) or Simultaneous (weaning off milk and dam-separation/pen change simultaneously at nine weeks), i.e Control were weaned in the same manner but only the pen change was possible at the separation step, as calves were already separated from the dam]. All animals received a similar amount of human contact, except control calves who were additionally fed milk by teat bucket twice a day. Calves were tested in a random order within block using a human approach test followed by an animal approach test conducted in a 2.5 m x 10 m arena at 10 weeks of age. Stepwise-Control calves had shorter latencies to first approach the test person than Stepwise-Whole-day (p < 0.05, median survival time of Stepwise-Control: 11 s, Stepwise-Whole-day: 111 s and Stepwise-Half-day: 52 s). Among Simultaneous calves, no dam-contact treatment differences were detected for the latency to first approach. Similarly, Stepwise-Control calves had an odds ratio (95% CI) of 24.2 (1.6–365.9, p < 0.05) for coming within 1 m of the test person vs Stepwise-Whole-day calves and 12.5 (1.1–141.1, p < 0.05) vs Stepwise-Half-day calves. Throughout the test period Simultaneous-Control vocalised less [estimated mean no. of vocalisations (95% CI), 3.6 (2.1–6.4)] than both Simultaneous-Whole-day [18.2 (12.8–25.9), p < 0.01] and Simultaneous-Half-day [15.7 (11.0–22.5), p < 0.01] while there was no difference under Stepwise. As expected, Control approached faster and were more likely to come close to the test person than dam-reared calves, but exclusively after the stepwise weaning and separation. For calves tested one week after simultaneous weaning and separation no effect of the dam-contact treatments was found, except a higher frequency of vocalisations for dam-reared calves. This implies that controlling for the stress level related to weaning and separation from the dam is important when interpreting human-animal relationship tests, as dam-contact treatment effects appeared to be affected by high levels of weaning stress.

Welfare of extensively managed Swedish Gotland ponies.

It has been suggested that grazing horses could be used as a credible tool for landscape conservation which would, at the same time, improve horse welfare as opposed to conventional housing. A study was conducted between May 2014 and April 2015 on 12 one year old Gotland ponies managed extensively without supplementary feed. Monthly animal welfare assessments (n = 13) revealed welfare issues in most of the horses, i.e. low body condition score (BCS<3/5), recurring poor skin condition in 11/12 horses and ocular discharge in 7/12 horses. At the end of the study, compared to the beginning, chafing and poor skin condition increased while coat condition improved. A correlation was found between a negative reaction (score > 0) in the human approach test and BCS < 3 and ocular discharge. Avoidance Distance test values were correlated with faecal parasite counts (> 350 eggs per gram [EPG]). These results indicate that the horses had acceptable welfare during late spring/summer (May-September) and that some horses required additional feed during winter. The animal welfare protocol proved to be an efficient tool for monitoring welfare. The results showed that factors important for extensive management are: daily monitoring; enclosures that provide sufficient feed; access to recovery enclosure; and habituation of horses to human approach.

Impact of early dam contact on veal calf welfare

Dairy calves, including surplus calves, are typically separated from their dam within hours of birth. The aim of this study was to assess the welfare impacts of raising surplus calves destined for veal with their dam for 2 or 4 weeks until transport. Surplus calves from one dairy farm were separated from their dam at birth (n = 39) or kept with the dam (n = 37) until transport to the veal farm at either 2 (n = 50) or 4 (n = 26) weeks of age, with abrupt separation for dam-reared calves. Calf measures of body weight, health, immunity, haematology and behaviour were recorded at the dairy and veal farms. Dam-reared calves had higher body weights in weeks 3, 4 and 5 at the DF, as well as at arrival at the veal farm, but by slaughter this advantage was lost. More dam-reared calves had fever in week 3 and showed signs of disease in week 5 at the dairy farm. Dam-reared calves did not differ in IgG, IgA or IgM levels but had higher counts of white blood cells, which could reflect a higher pathogen exposure rather than improved immunity. Dam-reared calves displayed more fear towards humans in a human approach test at 5 and 7 weeks after arrival at the veal farm, and more frequent social behaviours at the veal farm at 9 and 16 weeks of age. In conclusion, it seems that there may be both advantages and disadvantages to keeping veal calves with the dam in terms of welfare in the current system.

Piglets’ behaviour and performance in relation to sow characteristics

The importance of maternal care in commercial pig production is largely ignored. The sow has little possibility to interact with her piglets, and piglets are often subjected to early weaning or artificial rearing. This study aimed to investigate aspects of physiological and behavioural maternal provisioning that contribute to offspring outcomes. We hypothesised that better maternal care and nutritional provisioning would relate positively to piglet immunity, growth and behaviour. Nineteen sows and their litters were studied in free-farrowing pens. Oxytocin and tumour necrosis factor-α in colostrum/milk and salivary cortisol were sampled from sows throughout lactation. Sows were assessed for dominance rank, response to handling, maternal defensiveness, suckling initiation and termination, posture and sow-piglet contact. Piglets were weighed, measured for body mass index (BMI) and sampled for blood (Immunoglobulin G; at birth). After weaning, they experienced a human approach test (HAT) and novel object test. Correlations were explored between individual sow characteristics, individual piglet outcomes, and between sow characteristics and piglet outcomes averaged by litter. Significant correlations between sow and piglet factors were analysed at the litter level in mixed models with piglet outcomes as response variables and sow characteristics as predictor variables, while accounting for sow parity, litter size and batch. Litters grew faster when their sow had lower cortisol values (P = 0.03), while sows with lower cortisol levels had more successful suckling bouts and engaged in greater amounts of sow-piglet contact. Litters had a lower BMI at weaning when the sow had a higher milk fat percentage at d3. Litters of the most dominant sows took longer to approach the human in the HAT, while litters of sows with higher cortisol at d0 took longer to approach the novel object when assessed on correlations (r = 0.82, P < 0.001) but not when the model accounted for parity and litter size (P = 0.35). Only some of the measured nutritive and non-nutritive sow factors influenced litter performance and behaviour, with parity and litter size also playing a role. Given the continued increase in litter size, but also the interest in loose-housed lactation pens for sows, further research on sows’ maternal investment and how it can be optimised is warranted.

Increased temperature during incubation increases the sociality of male broilers in later life

Egg incubation through artificial means is a highly controlled process, where eggs are held at a fixed air temperature of 37.6 °C. Nevertheless, much research has been conducted on alternative temperature profiles to evaluate their influence on production and welfare traits. Most attention has been paid on increasing temperature as this has been shown to improve heat tolerance in later life. Limited research has been conducted on the effects on animal behavior, although the absence of negative emotions such as fearfulness and the presence of social expression is considered crucial for positive animal welfare as stated by the Welfare Quality® Protocol for Poultry. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to investigate the effect of two heat tolerance improving thermal treatments: (T1, +1 °C and T2, +2 °C from embryonic day 15–20) on fearful and social behaviors in later life. A total of 12 pens (4 per treatment) containing 13–14 chickens was reared for 42 days. During this rearing period, post-hatch fearful and social behavior were quantified using seven behavioral tests: an emergence test, a social reinstatement test, an isolation test, a novel arena test, a novel object test, a human stationary and a human approach test. These tests were chosen based on a thorough literature study and repeated 2 or 3 times. The research results showed that social behaviors were affected by the interaction of treatment and gender. Whereas in standard incubation, males have a lower social reinstatement tendency, both treatments changed their behavior. T1 males vocalized more than females during isolation (males: 73 ± 4 calls versus females: 38 ± 2 calls, P < 0.001) and T2 males showed more social motivation during a social reinstatement test compared to C (T2: 121 ± 20 s versus C: 66 ± 25 s, P < 0.05) and T1 (57 ± 27 s, P < 0.05). Finally, an effect of age was found with older birds being less fearful of a novel object and novel environment, but more fearful of an approaching human. Also, they seem more socially driven to contact conspecifics. However, the validity of these age results is questionable as habituation, changing sensory and/or cognitive skills, variance between repeats and possible reduced mobility at an older age could affect the behavioral response over time. In conclusion, increased temperature during incubation conditions can improve heat tolerance in later life, however, sociality is also affected. Both T1 and T2 changed social behaviour. An increased tendency to reinstate contact with conspecifics is found in T2 males than females.

Reducing stocking density benefits behaviour of fast- and slower-growing broilers

The broiler industry has come under sustained pressure from welfare organizations to improve broiler welfare. Breed and stocking density are important factors for broiler welfare and are often specified as criteria for higher welfare systems. However, it remains unknown how slower-growing broilers respond to a reduction in stocking density with regard to their behaviour, and whether this response differs from fast-growing broilers. Therefore, we compared fast- (Ross 308) and slower-growing broilers (Ranger Classic) housed at 4 different stocking densities (24, 30, 36 and 42 kg/m2, based on slaughter weight) with regard to their behaviour, responses to behavioural tests (i.e., novel object (NO), human approach (HA) and free-space (FS) test) and enrichment use at 4 target body weights (TBW’s, 0.4, 1.1, 1.7 and 2.1 kg). The experiment had a 2 × 4 factorial design with 4 replicates (pens) per treatment (total of 32 pens). Thinning (15%) was done in a 50/50 male/female ratio at 38 (Ross 308) and 44 (Ranger Classic) days of age (estimated body weight of 2.2 kg). We hypothesized that slower-growing broilers would respond more strongly to a reduction in stocking density with regard to their behaviour. As slower-growing broilers are more active and show more comfort and foraging behaviours, it is expected that with increasing space they will respond with a larger increase in these types of behaviours compared to fast-growing broilers. Contrary to our hypothesis, hardly any interactions between breed and stocking density were found, indicating that fast- and slower-growing broilers showed similar responses to a reduction in stocking density. Broilers housed at lower stocking densities (24 and/or 30 kg/m2) showed more comfort and foraging behaviour, and showed more frolicking, running and sparring in the FS test compared to those housed at higher stocking densities (36 and/or 42 kg/m2). Slower-growing broilers showed less ingestion, more locomotion, standing, comfort and foraging behaviour, made better use of the enrichment by sitting on the bale, and more slower-growing broilers approached a human and NO compared to fast-growing broilers. In conclusion, reducing stocking density positively affected performance of comfort, foraging and play behaviours, indicating improved welfare. Slower-growing broilers showed more locomotive, comfort and foraging behaviours, less fear and a better use of enrichments, suggesting improved welfare compared to fast-growing broilers. Thus, reducing stocking density and using slower-growing broilers would benefit broiler welfare, where combining both would further improve broiler welfare with regard to their behaviour.