Human-altered Landscapes Research Articles

City life alters the gut microbiome and stable isotope profiling of the eastern water dragon (Intellagama lesueurii).

Urbanisation is one of the most significant threats to biodiversity, due to the rapid and large-scale environmental alterations it imposes on the natural landscape. It is, therefore, imperative that we understand the consequences of and mechanisms by which, species can respond to it. In recent years, research has shown that plasticity of the gut microbiome may be an important mechanism by which animals can adapt to environmental change, yet empirical evidence of this in wild non-model species remains sparse. Using an empirical replicated study system, we show that city life alters the gut microbiome and stable isotope profiling of a wild native non-model species - the eastern water dragon (Intellagama lesueurii) in Queensland, Australia. City dragons exhibit a more diverse gut microbiome than their native habitat counterparts and show gut microbial signatures of a high fat and plant rich diet. Additionally, we also show that city dragons have elevated levels of the Nitrogen-15 isotope in their blood suggesting that a city diet, which incorporates novel anthropogenic food sources, may also be richer in protein. These results highlight the role that gut microbial plasticity plays in an animals' response to human-altered landscapes.

Habitat selection of Cape porcupines in a farmland-suburban context in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Cape porcupines (Hystrix africaeaustralis) have a wide geographic distribution throughout southern Africa and have a wide ecological tolerance of many terrestrial habitats, including those within human-altered landscapes. Due to their adaptability within anthropogenic landscapes, knowledge of their spatial behaviour will provide fundamental information about this species. With the aid of telemetry data (July 2016–January 2017) from 11 Cape porcupines, we investigated their habitat selection in a farmland-suburban context in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Two levels of selection were determined, 1) at the landscape area scale (2nd order of selection) and 2) at the home range scale (3rd order of selection). Our results showed a variation in their habitat selection at the two spatial scales. Although all Cape porcupines selected the forest with bushland habitat at the landscape scale, we observed a few individuals selecting the residential and grassland habitats or used these habitat types in proportion to their availability, at the home range scale. Agricultural areas (farmlands and timber plantations) were used by Cape porcupines, but were not selected. In suburban areas, the availability of naturally woody vegetation appeared to be the main driver of the species persistence within these landscapes. Also, we addressed possible human-porcupine conflict and provide management recommendations for cultivated farmlands and suburban gardens, where the species appear to be most conflict-prone.

Reproductive Characteristics of Red-Tailed Hawks in Yellowstone National Park, an Intact Temperate Landscape

Red-tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) are common across North America and are well-adapted to human-altered landscapes. Yellowstone National Park offers an opportunity to study this nearly ubiquitous species in a relatively unaltered and intact temperate ecosystem. In anticipation of future habitat and environmental change, we monitored Red-tailed Hawk territories and nests across the park's northern range to establish a baseline of hawk density, reproduction, and population status. We used a combination of intensive territory monitoring at two different scales and roadside point count surveys, analyzed using detection-dependent density modeling. From 2011 through 2015, we monitored between 17 and 44 territories each year and, in total, documented at least 60 territories in the northern range. Territory density across the northern range was comparable with other regional estimates, but local density was particularly high on the Blacktail Deer Plateau. On average, 87% of territorial pairs (range: 75–100%) laid eggs and breeding success averaged 63% (range: 48–89%). Hawk reproductive rate averaged 1.07 (range: 0.46–1.74) young per occupied territory and brood size averaged 1.73 (range: 1.30–1.96) young per successful nest. Reproductive rate varied significantly between study years but on average was well below the level thought necessary for a stable population, underscoring the importance of continued monitoring to better understand the drivers of population trends.

Temporal Lag in Ecological Responses to Landscape Change: Where Are We Now?

The loss or gain of biodiversity and/or ecosystem functions and services can occur with a substantial delay following landscape change. We have first revisited the key concepts used to refer to those delayed ecological responses to landscape change and then reviewed the literature aiming to summarize (i) methodological approaches used to empirically evaluate the existence of delayed ecological responses, (ii) empirical evidences of delayed ecological responses, and (iii) current understanding of the main mechanisms that can explain those delayed responses. We identified that key concepts used to refer to delayed ecological responses are very confusing as many different terms are used to refer to a single delayed ecological response. So, we propose here a unified vocabulary to support future research. Our review showed that there is plenty of empirical evidence that delayed ecological responses to landscape change are common in nature. However, current knowledge is mostly restricted to biodiversity responses to adverse landscape changes. Few studies have investigated for ecosystem functions and/or services delayed responses or delayed ecological gains after landscape structure improvements such as increase in habitat amount. We verified that some progress occurred in recent years. We identified the use of three new methodological approaches to empirically evaluate the existence of delayed ecological responses, and we also verified an increase in our understanding about the mechanisms that explain delayed ecological responses. As expected, we observed high levels of support for delayed ecological responses in landscapes that have undergone recent changes and for habitat specialist species. Other hypotheses have been less frequently tested. Some of them have a low level of support (no clear relationship between strength of landscape change and delayed responses), while others have a good level of support but still need more evidences (relationships between species longevity and dispersal capability with delayed responses). Our understanding about delayed ecological responses to landscape change is still at an early stage and seems to be increasing slowly while human-altered landscapes are increasing rapidly worldwide. There are still important knowledge gaps to be filled. Beyond providing better support for some explanatory hypotheses, we still need to explore (1) ecosystem functions and services delayed responses to landscape change, and (2) the delayed ecological gains after positive landscape changes.

New Zealand ecosanctuaries: types, attributes and outcomes

ABSTRACT We define an ecosanctuary in a New Zealand context as ‘a project larger than 25 ha implementing multi-species, pest mammal control for ecosystem recovery objectives, and with substantial community involvement’. We present attributes of 84 projects meeting this definition, including three lacustrine islands, 16 marine islands, seven ring-fenced ecosanctuaries, seven peninsula-fenced ecosanctuaries and 51 unfenced mainland ecosanctuaries. Ecosanctuaries have biological and social objectives, and some have returned threatened, previously extirpated taxa to the New Zealand mainland. Increasingly, these intensively managed sites are being embedded in human-altered landscapes with low levels of pest control – a ‘core and buffer’ system. Most community groups that establish ecosanctuaries lack the technical expertise, resources and mandate to undertake regional or national prioritisation. There is a strong need for agency leadership of this, and to develop best practice pest control, pest monitoring and biodiversity outcome monitoring tools, as goals for national restoration of biodiversity rapidly expand.

Phylogenetic community structure as an ecological indicator of anthropogenic disturbance for endemic lizards in a biodiversity hotspot

The expansion of human-altered landscapes affects biodiversity on every continent. In the Cerrado biodiversity hotspot of central Brazil, Eucalyptus plantations increasingly claim large tracts of native habitats thanks to favorable soils, climate and booming pulp firm profits. Yet, the highs and lows of the economy including government incentives over the years riddled the landscape with abandoned plantations, which are not subject to active restoration. Despite the well-documented pattern anthropogenic disturbances negatively affect Cerrado biodiversity, little is known about the processes driving species co-existence within these abandoned plantations.Herein, we use phylogenetic community structure indices to test if potential processes assembling lizard communities differ between undisturbed Cerrado habitats and disturbed abandoned Eucalyptus plantations; and if so, are these processes predictable. In addition, we explore the applicability of phylogenetic community structure indices as ecological indicators of anthropogenic disturbance in the Cerrado biodiversity hotspot.We address these questions at a local scale, recording lizard species richness and abundance along transects of undisturbed Cerrado and adjacent disturbed abandoned Eucalyptus plantations. Morphological measurements were collected from captured lizards to test for trait conservatism. We investigated if phylogenetic community structure is altered in a predictable manner by comparing (i) phylogenetic species variability, (ii) phylogenetic species richness and (iii) phylogenetic species evenness. To test for significant differences between undisturbed and disturbed communities, we performed two-tailed paired t-tests for each phylogenetic community index. We also test for phylogenetic clustering and overdispersion to determine if potential processes assembling lizard communities differ between undisturbed and disturbed communities. Furthermore, we compare phylogenetic community structure indices to other commonly used diversity indices (taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity) to evaluate their applicability as ecological indicators of anthropogenic disturbance in the Cerrado.We demonstrated phylogenetic clustering in two out of three of the undisturbed Cerrado lizard communities supporting habitat filtering as the potential dominant assembly process; whereas 67% of the disturbed Eucalyptus communities showed phylogenetic overdispersion supporting competition as the potential predominate assembly process. This indicates anthropogenic disturbance, in the form of abandoned Eucalyptus plantations, may alter phylogenetic community structure in a predictable manner, leading to the loss of closely related species in the disturbed plantation forests. The highly endemic biota of the Cerrado is composed of closely related species that share similar traits for survival, most likely a consequence of frequent episodic fires during the dry season. Interestingly, phylogenetic community structure indices and diversity indices did not converge on the same disturbed site to prioritize for active restoration; thereby, providing a cautionary tale on the applicability of the indices as ecological indicators for the Cerrado biodiversity.

Divergent flows of avian-mediated ecosystem services across forest-matrix interfaces in human-modified landscapes

The ecological interplay between edge and matrix effects along forest-matrix interfaces is closed linked to landscape processes modulating biodiversity and ecosystem services provision in disturbed landscapes. Improving such knowledge is therefore essential to design more efficient land use management in multifunctional landscapes. Estimate the avian-mediated Ecosystem Service Provision (ESP) in contrasting types of forest-matrix interfaces in tropical landscapes, and examine how local habitat and landscape attributes can predict ESPs. We sampled bird assemblages in forest-pasture (FP) and forest-eucalyptus plantation (FE) interfaces, and estimated their potential as pest control, seed dispersal and pollination agents across human-modified landscapes in southeastern Brazil. Using Random Forest algorithm, we also quantified the relative importance of local vs. landscape attributes in predicting ESPs. The overall ESPs was higher in FP than FE interfaces. Habitat generalist birds were important potential seed disperser and pollinator agents at both FP and FE. At forest edges, landscape forest cover best predicted pest control services, whereas the density of rural homesteads best predicted potential seed dispersal and pollination services. Local habitat features were particularly important in predicting all ESP in pastures. We highlight the importance of matrix type and matrix habitat structure in modulating avian ESPs across forest-matrix interfaces in human-altered landscapes and suggest that forest cover and rural homestead density are key elements in multifunctional landscapes that consider avian ESP in both forest and matrix habitats.

Spatial isotopic dietary plasticity of a Neotropical forest ungulate: the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari)

White-lipped peccaries (WLPs; Tayassu pecari, Tayassuidae, Cetartiodactyla) are forest-dwelling ungulates critical to maintaining healthy Neotropical forest ecosystems through key aspects of their dietary behaviors, including seed predation and dispersal. Land-use change and deforestation threaten WLP access to food resources, and thus knowledge of how WLP diet varies spatially is necessary to frame conservation efforts for the species. Here, we use stable carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) isotopes from WLP hair and food resources to assess whether WLP diet varies among four regions in three Brazilian biomes: the Pantanal, the Cerrado, and the Atlantic Forest (semi-deciduous and ombrophilous), each varying in forest canopy cover, climatic characteristics, and degrees of agricultural impacts. We find that in all regions WLPs are consuming primarily C₃ resources, with mean δ¹³C values ranging from –28.7‰ to –26.9‰. In the heavily fragmented semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest, δ¹³C values are the highest, and may indicate that some individuals are consuming a small amount of C₄ crops or demonstrating increased levels of insectivory. A through-time comparison of WLP hair in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest suggests the recorded slight departure from an exclusive C₃ diet may be a recent phenomenon, as hairs collected prior to the year 2000 have lower δ¹³C values than those collected in 2016. While some individual WLPs may slightly alter diet in heavily anthropogenically modified areas, C₄ crops are not a main component of WLP diet. Our results suggest that WLPs are still highly dependent on forest resources, even in human-altered landscapes, and conservation and management plans for the species must consider these dietary needs in order to be successful.

Ecology of a versatile canid in the Neotropics: gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) in Belize, Central America

Gray foxes are successful habitat generalists within the temperate zone of their geographic range, exploiting a wide variety of habitats, including human-dominated landscapes. However, little is known of their use of tropical habitats or their ability to exploit landscapes with human activity. Here, we report the first study to explore the ecology and behavior of gray foxes within the tropics. Extensive camera-trap data (23,598 trap nights) across two different landscapes in Belize, combined with telemetry data on three collared individuals, showed a preference for more open and drier habitats over tropical moist broadleaf forest which is the dominant habitat type in the region. Although foxes did not use the interior of the broadleaf forests, they were detected at the edges and readily exploited areas that had been converted to support human activities (e.g., tourist centers). Home ranges of collared individuals were relatively large (3–7 km2) compared to those of temperate gray foxes, suggesting that they occupy a less productive landscape than those studied further north. This study found that although tropical gray foxes readily exploited human-altered landscapes, just as they do in the temperate zone, they are not the habitat generalists as previously thought and seem unable to fully exploit tropical moist broadleaf forest, the regions’ most dominant and productive habitat type.

Multi-scale approach to disentangle the small mammal composition in a fragmented landscape in central Brazil

Habitat quality and its availability affect the structure of communities at a variety of different spatial and environmental scales, including habitat and landscape levels. Analyses conducted at multiple scales have demonstrated the importance of landscape patterns with regard to community structure. We used a multi-scale approach to better understand the composition of small mammal communities in central Brazil. We delimited 24 sampling units for the purpose of investigating the response of small mammal composition at the habitat, patch, and landscape scales, while evaluating quality and availability of habitat in each patch, as well as landscape configuration and landscape composition. We used a Mantel correlogram to check for spatial autocorrelation, and partial redundancy analysis to correlate the matrix of species composition with the matrix of environmental variables. Small mammal composition was spatially structured and correlated with variables at all environmental scales: vegetation structure (fallen logs, lianas, and canopy cover), habitat patch (normalized difference vegetation index [NDVI]), and landscape composition (total core area—a forest cover metric). Our findings show evidence of the limited dispersal capacity of small mammals and the importance of habitat quality at habitat and patch scales, and habitat availability at the landscape scale, for small mammal composition. This study highlights the importance of a multi-scale approach for understanding community structure in a human-altered landscape.

Linear forest patches and the conservation of small mammals in human-altered landscapes

Linear patches of native forest are commonly found in south-eastern Brazil, where they also serve as boundaries between rural properties. These linear patches can be found connecting forest fragments (possibly acting as vegetation corridors) or isolated and are generally surrounded by agricultural areas (mainly cattle pastures and coffee plantations). In this paper, we assessed the influence of connectivity and type of surrounding agricultural areas on small mammal species in a fragmented landscape. We captured and monitored seven species from which all but one (Rhipidomys itoan) were found in all types of habitat studied (forest fragments, linear patches, and agricultural areas). Community structure was highly similar between forest fragments and linear patches, but differed in agricultural areas. Necromys lasiurus and Calomys cerqueirai were more abundant in agricultural areas and rarely captured elsewhere. Akodon montensis was the most common species and preferred forest fragments. Gracilinanus microtarsus was more abundant in linear patches. Cerradomys subflavus, Oligoryzomys nigripes and R. itoan were equally abundant in forest fragments and linear patches. Small mammal community structure was similar in connected and isolated linear patches. Also, linear patches differed from both types of surrounding agricultural areas – cattle pasture and coffee plantation. Based on the results we concluded that even narrow and isolated linear patches may play an important role for wildlife conservation in a severely fragmented landscape. Therefore, we suggest that conservation efforts should focus on increasing the amount of native vegetation and encourage landowners to maintain the linear forest patches.

Novel landscape elements within natural gas fields increase densities but not fitness of an important songbird nest predator

Identifying the elements within human-altered landscapes most associated with population and community changes is critical for conservation and management of sensitive species. We investigated which features of habitat change from natural gas development best explained the density of deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), an important nest predator of declining sagebrush-obligate songbirds. During 2014–2016, we quantified the spatial extent of habitat change (well pads, roads, and reclaimed areas [i.e., reseeded soils]) surrounding 12 sites spanning two natural gas fields in Wyoming, USA. We further tested whether the altered plant communities within reclaimed areas provided benefits to deer mice, by assessing multiple fitness indices. Deer mouse density increased with surrounding reclaimed area. Powder tracking and dietary analyses confirmed that mice moved through and consumed plant species found exclusively within reclaimed areas. Concomitant fitness metrics of mice, however, were neutrally or negatively related to the amount of surrounding reclaimed area. Mice therefore did not derive any apparent fitness benefits associated with living near reclaimed areas, despite the presence of novel food resources, indicating that increased abundance may be a product of mice dispersing toward reseeded soils. Our study contributes mechanistic insights into the complexities of how human-induced changes to landscapes can influence community dynamics. Minimizing total habitat disturbed during construction, expediting reclamation practices, and using only native and regionally-local seed mixes would likely help minimize increases in synanthropic rodent predators within energy fields. More efficient restoration of disturbed habitat, moreover, may help ameliorate altered predator-prey relationships that affect the success of sensitive species.

Contrasting impacts of invasive plants and human-altered landscape context on nest survival and brood parasitism of a grassland bird

Humans have altered grasslands in recent decades through crop conversion, woody encroachment, and plant invasions. Concurrently, grassland birds have experienced range-wide declines. Studies have reported effects of plant invasions and land conversion on nest ecology, but few have assessed relative impacts of these changes. We compared impacts of invasive plants and landscape context on nest survival of a grassland songbird, the dickcissel (Spiza americana). We also compared effects on parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) and tested whether parasitism affects survival. From 2013–2016, we monitored 477 dickcissel nests. We measured nest-site vegetation (including woody plants, tall fescue Schedonorus arundinaceous, and other invasive grasses) and measured landscape context at broad scales. Nest survival declined with increasing tall fescue cover at nest sites, and parasitism was more common at nests with greater fescue and woody cover. Some evidence suggested a negative effect of row-crop cover within 1000 m on nest survival, but no landscape patterns unambiguously affected survival. Woodland cover and wooded-edge prevalence were associated with reduced parasitism risk. Parasitized nests had smaller clutches, failed more frequently, and produced fewer fledglings than non-parasitized nests. Determining the impacts of invasive plants and other anthropogenic changes on grassland birds will aid in prioritizing management to improve habitat quality. Our results indicate that optimizing landscape context around habitats may not affect dickcissel nest survival strongly, except perhaps through effects on parasitism. In contrast, controlling tall fescue and shrubs within grasslands could benefit birds by increasing nest success and reducing parasitism.

Complex effects of landscape, habitat and reservoir operation on riparian vegetation across multiple scales in a human-dominated landscape

Riparian ecosystems associated with dam reservoirs, are subjected to a wide variety of stressors that alter their plant community composition and diversity patterns and affect riparian ecosystem services delivery. To enhance riverine and regional ecosystem management, the different influences of dam-induced environmental change and anthropogenic factors within and around the reservoir need to be understood across multiple scales. To elucidate the relative importance of these factors, this study examines riparian vegetation composition and structure along the Three Gorges Reservoir (China) and their responses to surrounding landscapes, habitat quality and reservoir management (three groups of influences). We recorded vegetation data in 5 × 1 m quadrats embedded in three stratified elevational zones 145–155 m, 155–165 m, and 165–175 m. Correspondence analyses were used to partition the contribution of various influences in explaining vegetation patterns at three organisational scales: site, community and individual species. Vascular plants totaled 150 species in 130 genera from 56 families. Overall, vegetation responses were idiosyncratic across the analysed scales. At the site-scale, landscape was most important in structuring communities. However, localised habitat and reservoir flooding influences have higher explanatory power at the community-scale, regardless of elevational divergence. Overall, there seem to be a general trend in the importance of variables across all analysed scales. Among the landscape factors, variables based on a landscape gradient model were much more influential than those based on the conventional patch mosaic model. Given the heavily inter-correlated nature of many variables at varying scales of human altered landscapes, the best way forward for reservoir riparian vegetation management strategies is to develop multi-scale, synthetic and location-specific approaches that may optimise conservation efforts.

Survey of Toxoplasma gondii Exposure in Muskrats in a Relatively Pristine Ecosystem.

Waterborne transmission of Toxoplasma gondii is assumed to be enhanced in areas with human-altered landscapes (e.g., urbanization, agriculture) and increased populations of non-native domestic and feral cats (Felis catus). However, little is known concerning T. gondii exposure risks in more natural watersheds (e.g., reduced human footprint, no domestic or feral cats) to establish a baseline for comparisons. In this study, muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) were used as sentinels to assess baseline T. gondii exposure in a relatively pristine watershed in the Greater Voyageurs Ecosystem, northern Minnesota, during the summers of 2018-2019. Toxoplasma gondii antibodies were assayed in sera of live-trapped muskrats (n = 70) using a modified agglutination test. None of our samples were positive for T. gondii antibodies (P = 0.00, 95% Wald Score Confidence Interval = 0.00-0.05). This study establishes a baseline to compare T. gondii waterborne transmission risks in other human-modified watersheds.

Zebra Finches forage on seed from invasive Buffel Grass, but prefer seed from two common native grasses

ABSTRACTInland Australia is being transformed by invasive Cenchrus ciliaris (Buffel Grass) which is displacing native grasses. Zebra Finches (Taeniopygia guttata) forage on C. ciliaris seed but it is not known whether native grass seed is preferred. The preferences of captive-bred Zebra Finches for different species of grass seed were investigated using cafeteria trials. An equal volume of unhusked seed from C. ciliaris and one of two common native grasses were offered in each trial. Zebra Finches foraged on C. ciliaris seed, but preferred native seed. They spent approximately 80% of their time foraging on Enneapogon polyphyllus seed, compared to 20% on C. ciliaris, and consumed more native seed. They also spent more time foraging on Triraphis mollis seed compared to C. ciliaris, but the amount of seed consumed was similar. Preferences could not be explained by seed size or accessibility and may relate to nutritional composition. Comparison of the condition and reproductive fitness of Zebra Finches on introduced and native seed diets would determine whether less-preferred C. ciliaris seed is nutritionally sub-optimal and whether there will be detrimental effects on Zebra Finch populations if C. ciliaris becomes the major source of seed across much of their current distribution. Our research contributes to knowledge of avian dietary preference in human-altered landscapes, and represents one of the few experiments published so far that focuses on direct interactions between invasive grasses and native animals to better understand the potential impacts of invasion.

Stable isotope signatures of large herbivore foraging habitats across Europe.

We investigated how do environmental and climatic factors, but also management, affect the carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) stable isotope composition in bone collagen of the two largest contemporary herbivores: European bison (Bison bonasus) and moose (Alces alces) across Europe. We also analysed how different scenarios of population recovery- reintroduction in bison and natural recovery in moose influenced feeding habitats and diet of these two species and compared isotopic signatures of modern populations of bison and moose (living in human-altered landscapes) with those occurring in early Holocene. We found that δ13C of modern bison and moose decreased with increasing forest cover. Decreasing forest cover, increasing mean annual temperature and feeding on farm crops caused an increase in δ15N in bison, while no factor significantly affected δ15N in moose. We showed significant differences in δ13C and δ15N among modern bison populations, in contrast to moose populations. Variation in both isotopes in bison resulted from inter-population differences, while in moose it was mainly an effect of intra-population variation. Almost all modern bison populations differed in δ13C and δ15N from early Holocene bison. Such differences were not observed in moose. It indicates refugee status of European bison. Our results yielded evidence that habitat structure, management and a different history of population recovery have a strong influence on foraging behaviour of large herbivores reflected in stable isotope signatures. Influence of forest structure on carbon isotope signatures of studied herbivores supports the “canopy effect” hypothesis.

Genets in the city: community observations and perceptions of large-spotted genets (Genetta tigrina) in an urban environment

The global increase in urbanization has resulted in exclusion of many carnivore species from human-altered landscapes due to a variety of anthropogenic impacts. However, despite the negative impacts of urbanization on carnivores, certain species exhibit an ability to survive within urban areas. The aim of the study was to solicit community-based information, using a questionnaire mainly, to investigate the distribution of Large-spotted Genets (Genetta tigrina) within the urban environment of the greater Durban district, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and investigate their reported use of anthropogenic structures for resting, breeding and foraging. The study was also designed to determine possible areas of conflict, habitat use and residents’ attitudes towards G. tigrina. Consequently, interviews were conducted in the suburbs of Kloof and Hillcrest, KwaZulu-Natal to establish information pertaining to genet behaviour, land-use, potential wildlife conflicts and public perceptions with their presence in urban areas. Walking between areas (during foraging bouts or between roost sites) was the main activity observed. Domestic pet food was the main food item genets were observed eating. The most cited cause of genet fatalities were attacks by domestic dogs and collisions with vehicles. Genets were reported using roof spaces for resting during daylight hours and for breeding. Respondents reported providing supplementary food such as meat, chicken and pet food to urban genets. The majority of respondents expressed positive attitudes towards genets in urban Kloof. Negative views stemmed from concerns of disease transfer (RABV) and impacts on wild bird populations. This study illustrated the adaptability of genets to live in urban areas and their ability to utilise anthropogenic resources. Furthermore, the study identified various potential threats to genets in an urban environment.

Diets of Kauai’s invasive rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri): evidence of seed predation and dispersal in a human-altered landscape

Rose-ringed parakeets (Psittacula krameri) are the world’s most successful introduced parrots, and > 2000 individuals reside on Kauai, Hawaii. These birds destroy crops, but impacts to other native and non-native species are largely unknown. Our study objectives on Kauai were to determine: (1) diets of rose-ringed parakeets at five sites (n = 9–25 per site), by sex, through crop and gizzard analysis and carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis, and (2) whether birds are dispersing or depredating seeds. We found 100% of birds (n = 64) were eating plant material and 80% of their diet was seed; males had more food in their crops and gizzards than did females. Corn (Zea mays) was eaten by 67% of birds and averaged 31% of mass in crops and gizzards. Invasive yellow guava (Psidium guajava) was eaten by 97% of birds and averaged 30% of their diet. Parakeets are potentially dispersing yellow guava seeds, as 66% of birds had intact guava seeds, and each bird had an average of three intact seeds. Diets differed statistically among sites. Parakeets from Lihue Airport did not have any corn, and isotopic carbon values also supported low feeding on corn by birds at Lihue Airport. No seeds of native plants were identified in rose-ringed parakeet diets. Our findings of a diverse plant diet, frequent seed predation, and potential to disperse invasive species’ seeds implies that land managers in agricultural, urban, and natural areas should be concerned with the current expansion of these invasive birds on Kauai and elsewhere.

Understanding predation risk and individual variation in risk avoidance for threatened boreal caribou.

Predation risk is a driver of species’ distributions. Animals can increase risk avoidance in response to fluctuations in predation risk, but questions remain regarding individual variability and the capacity to respond to changes in spatial risk across human‐altered landscapes. In northeast British Columbia, Canada, boreal caribou populations declined as roads and seismic lines have increased, which are theorized to increase gray wolf predation. Our goal was to model risk and to evaluate individual variability and the development of risk perception by examining individual risk avoidance in response to reproductive status and age. We used locations from collared caribou and wolves to identify landscape features associated with the risk of a potential wolf‐caribou encounter and risk of being killed given an encounter. We built resource selection functions to estimate individual responses to risk. We used general linear regressions to evaluate individual risk and linear feature avoidance as a function of age and reproductive status (calf or no calf). Linear features increased the risk of encounter. Older caribou and caribou with calves demonstrated stronger avoidance of the risk of encounter and roads, but weaker avoidance in late summer to the risk of being killed relative to younger and calf‐less individuals. Mechanisms explaining the inverse relationships between the risk of encounter and risk of being killed are uncertain, but it is conceivable that caribou learn to avoid the risk of encounter and roads. Responses by females with vulnerable calves to the risk of encounter and risk of being killed might be explained by a trade‐off between these two risk types and a prioritization on the risk of encounter. Despite the capacity to alter their responses to risk, the global decline in Rangifer populations (caribou and wild reindeer) suggests these behaviors are insufficient to mitigate the impacts of anthropogenic disturbances.