Fouling Communities Research Articles

Preface to “Invasive Species” Topical Collection

making valuable contributions to basic ecology and conservation biology. Invasion ecology is a rather young field, and much effort is still needed to develop generalized principles and to transform the discipline into a predictive science. The majority of studies on invasive species have focused on terrestrial habitats. However, marine and coastal systems worldwide are being invaded at extraordinary rates owing to shipping, opening and construction of seaways and canals, fisheries, aquarium trade, habitat modification, and climate change (Williams et al. 2013). In particular, shipping vectors such as ballast water and hull fouling, which are responsible for 65–70 % of aquatic invasions (Ricciardi 2006; Molnar et al. 2008), are capable of translocating almost entire aquatic communities during a single introduction event (Sylvester et al. 2011; Briski et al. 2012) and have no equivalent in the terrestrial environment. Therefore, work addressing key transport vectors in aquatic systems such as those that quantify the number of transported species and their abundances (i.e., propagule and colonization pressures), those that examine community dynamics of entrained assemblages during the transport process, and those that investigate genetic diversity and phenotypic plasticity of introduced species in relation to vector type is urgently needed. Further, studies identifying predictors of invasion success, forecasting impact of invasive species on invaded communities, and testing of hypotheses, such as the importance of hybridization, invasion meltdown, and enemy release, are essential for understanding mechanisms underlying invasion success in marine and coastal environments as well as abilities of invasive species to adapt rapidly during the invasion process. This ‘Topical Collection’ addresses many tenets of invasion ecology and sheds new light on this important part of marine biology. It provides a venue for the exchange of information on various aspects about aquatic invasion ecology and an opportunity Marine Biology introduces a new feature called ‘Topical Collections’, which promotes current and emergent areas of research. The electronic ‘Topical Collections’ are continuations of the former printed ‘Special Issues’, with an advantage of being publicly available with the very first article accepted. In addition to the online publication in the ‘Topical Collection’, all articles are published electronically and in print in regular volumes. The first Marine Biology ‘Topical Collection’ focuses on “Invasive Species”. Human population growth and increased global trade have significantly expanded our collective ecological ‘footprint’, with the introduction of nonindigenous species, particularly the invasive ones, being recognized as one of the dominant environmental stressors (Sala et al. 2000). Invasive species may act as predators, parasites, pathogens, or competitors of native species; their introductions and spread can result in dramatic changes in recipient ecosystems, including significant negative impact on local biodiversity as well as ecosystem functions and services to human society (Simberloff et al. 2013). The ability to predict and/or identify future invaders, the responsible transport vectors and pathways (i.e., transport means and routes), and potential impact would allow managers and policy makers to develop strategies to prevent new invasions and manage existing ones, while also

First record ofNeosiphonia echinata(Rhodomelaceae, Rhodophyta) in the South Pacific: an introduced species in Southeast Asia

AbstractNeosiphonia echinata,a well-known western Atlantic species, is here reported for the first time from Indonesia and this extends its distribution into Southeast Asia.Neosiphonia echinatawas collected from Sulawesi, Indonesia as an epiphyte onKappaphycus alvareziiand growing on ropes in a culture farm. We also collected this species from Florida, USA, and then compared their morphology and molecular data.Neosiphonia echinatais identified by having erect main filaments arising from prostrate filaments, numerous rhizoids cutting off from the proximal end of pericentral cells by a cross wall, four pericentral cells throughout the thallus, ecorticate axes, very long and abundant trichoblasts more than twice forked, abundant adventitious laterals, procarps with four-celled carpogonial branches, and a spiral arrangement of tetrasporangia. Our phylogenetic analyses ofrbcL andcox1 indicate thatN. echinatafound in Indonesia was very closely related to material from the Western Atlantic Ocean.Neosiphonia echinatamay be added as an introduced species to the Indonesian marine flora. The shipping routes western Atlantic-Mediterranean-Indonesia and western Atlantic-Pacific Ocean-Indonesia might be considered as possible pathways of introduction as a consequence of ballast water and hull fouling.

Relative importance of vessel hull fouling and ballast water as transport vectors of nonindigenous species to the Canadian Arctic

Ships’ hull fouling and ballast water are leading vectors of marine nonindigenous species globally, yet few studies have examined their magnitude in the Arctic. To determine the relative importance of these vectors in Canada’s Arctic, we collected hull and ballast water samples from 13 and 32 vessels, respectively, at Churchill, Manitoba. We compared total abundance and richness of invertebrates transported on hulls versus those in ballast water. We found that hull fouling was associated with higher total abundance and richness of nonindigenous species when compared with ballast water. Additionally, a significant positive richness–total abundance relationship for nonindigenous species for hull fouling but not for ballast water assemblages suggests that the likelihood of a high-risk (i.e., species-rich and high abundance) introduction event is greater for the former than the latter vector. The discovery of viable, widespread nonindigenous barnacles in hull samples further underscores the prominence of hull fouling over ballast water as a vector of nonindigenous species. Our study demonstrates that hull fouling is a more important vector for transfer of nonindigenous species to the Canadian Arctic than ballast water based on abundance and richness of nonindigenous species transported by the two vectors.

Rapid assessment of marine non-native species in the Shetland Islands, Scotland

The Shetland Islands, northern Scotland, have a highly active and diverse maritime environment, and local marine industries form an important part of the local economy. The potential for damage caused by non-native species is high. As part of an assessment of the current status of non-native species in Shetland, a series of rapid assessment surveys, coupled with a settlement panel monitoring programme, were carried out at 18 sites between May 2012 and October 2014. Eight non-native species were detected in our surveys, three of which (Corella eumyota Traustedt, 1882; Bugulina simplex Hincks, 1886; and Dasysiphonia japonica (Yendo) Kim, 2012) had not been previously recorded. Observations by SCUBA also reported the first UK record of Schizoporella japonica Ortmann, 1890 growing on natural substrate. A literature review revealed three additional non-native species that have been documented in Shetland but were not detected in our survey work. The results from this study highlight the speed at which non-native species can spread over regional scales, and that more active harbours contain greater numbers of non-native species, indicating the potential of hull fouling and ballast water exchange for transporting non-native species.

Swimming in an Unsteady World.

When animals swim in aquatic habitats, the water through which they move is usually flowing. Therefore, an important part of understanding the physics of how animals swim in nature is determining how they interact with the fluctuating turbulent water currents in their environment. We addressed this issue using microscopic larvae of invertebrates in "fouling communities" growing on docks and ships to ask how swimming affects the transport of larvae between moving water and surfaces from which they disperse and onto which they recruit. Field measurements of the motion of water over fouling communities were used to design realistic turbulent wavy flow in a laboratory wave-flume over early-stage fouling communities. Fine-scale measurements of rapidly-varying water-velocity fields were made using particle-image velocimetry, and of dye-concentration fields (analog for chemical cues from the substratum) were made using planar laser-induced fluorescence. We used individual-based models of larvae that were swimming, passively sinking, passively rising, or were passive and neutrally buoyant to determine how their trajectories were affected by their motion through the water, rotation by local shear, and transport by ambient flow. Swimmers moved up and down in the turbulent flow more than did neutrally buoyant larvae. Although more of the passive sinkers landed on substrata below them, and more passive risers on surfaces above, swimming was the best strategy for landing on surfaces if their location was not predictable (as is true for fouling communities). When larvae moved within 5 mm of surfaces below them, passive sinkers and neutrally-buoyant larvae landed on the substratum, whereas many of the swimmers were carried away, suggesting that settling larvae should stop swimming as they near a surface. Swimming and passively-rising larvae were best at escaping from a surface below them, as precompetent larvae must do to disperse away. Velocities, vorticities, and odor-concentrations encountered by larvae fluctuated rapidly, with peaks much higher than mean values. Encounters with concentrations of odor or with vorticities above threshold increased as larvae neared the substratum. Although microscopic organisms swim slowly, their locomotory behavior can affect where they are transported by the movement of ambient water as well as the signals they encounter when they move within a few centimeters of surfaces.

The invasive caprellid Caprella scaura Templeton, 1836 (Crustacea: Amphipoda: Caprellidae) arrives on Madeira Island, Portugal

A survey to monitor for marine non-indigenous species in two marinas of the Archipelago of Madeira (Portugal) has detected the invasive caprellid Caprella scaura Templeton, 1836 in Madeira Island. This species was first described from Mauritius in the western Indian Ocean. During the 20 th century, Caprella scaura has been detected in numerous locations worldwide (Australia, California, Mediterranean) and most recently reported in southern Europe and northern Africa. Hull fouling was the most likely vector for the introduction of C. scaura to Madeira Island.

Successional trajectory of the fouling community on a tropical upwelling ecosystem in southeast Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Abstract The present study describes the successional trajectory of the fouling community in the upwelling region of Cabo Frio in southeastern Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. For 12 months, five PVC panels were sampled monthly by underwater photography to record the percent cover of fouling organisms, which allowed for the evaluation of the successional process through functional groups. The variability in the composition of the fouling community increased throughout the successional trajectory, creating a mosaic pattern. The identification of two associations after a year of observation, with one characterized by filamentous algae, Hydrozoa and Cirripedia and another mainly by articulated calcareous algae, shows that divergent trajectories can be observed even under the same environmental conditions. As an important seasonal factor of the local oceanographic characteristics, the upwelling events allowed for an environmental heterogeneity, and rejecting the classic orderly and directional succession model.

Further Mediterranean expansion of the non-indigenous bryozoan <em>Celleporaria brunnea</em>: multiple records along the Italian coasts

In the framework of a wider systematic survey aimed at studying non-indigenous species in Italian harbours and marinas, the ascophoran bryozoan Celleporaria brunnea was detected for the first time in the western Mediterranean Sea. The species is presumably native to the Pacific coasts of North America and is distributed from British Columbia to the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador). In the Mediterranean Sea, C. brunnea was first recorded in 2004 in the inner part of Izmir Bay near Alsancak harbour (Turkey) and later reported along the Lebanese coasts. The species was recently detected in Cascais marina in Portugal and in the Arcachon Basin (France), documenting the first records in the eastern Atlantic. The finding in the Italian harbours of La Spezia (Liguria), Olbia (Sardinia) and Lampedusa (off Sicily) marks its western and northernmost occurrence within the Mediterranean basin. Pathways of introduction into the western Mediterranean Sea are discussed, concluding that hull fouling is the most likely vector. The species may be expected to appear soon in other harbours of the Mediterranean basin.

Predicting competitive shifts and responses to climate change based on latitudinal distributions of species assemblages.

Many terrestrial plant and marine benthic communities involve intense competition for space as a means to survive and reproduce. Superior competitors can dominate other species numerically with high reproductive rates, indirectly with high growth rates that facilitate space acquisition, or directly with competitive overgrowth. To assess how climate change could affect competitive interactions, we examined latitudinal patterns in growth rates and overgrowth competition via field surveys and experiments with marine epibenthic communities. Epibenthic fouling communities are dominated by invasive tunicates, bryozoans, and other species that grow on docks, boats, and other artificial structures. Fouling communities are space limited, so growth rate and overgrowth competition play an important role in shaping abundance patterns. We experimentally assessed temperature-dependent growth rates of several tunicates and bryozoans in eight regions spanning the U.S. east and west coasts. Several species displayed positive growth responses to warmer temperature in the northern portions of their latitudinal ranges, and vice versa. We used photo surveys of floating docks in at least 16 harbors in each region to compare communities and overgrowth competition. There was a strong correlation across species and regions between growth rate and competitive ability, indicating that growth plays an important role in competitive outcomes. Because growth rates are typically temperature dependent for organisms that compete for space, including terrestrial plants, fungi, algae, bacteria, and sessile benthic organisms, global warming could affect competitive outcomes. Our results suggest that these competitive shifts can be predicted by species' relative growth rates and latitudinal ranges.

Grooming using rotating brushes as a proactive method to control ship hull fouling

Grooming may be defined as the frequent and gentle cleaning of a ship hull coating, when it is in port or idle, to prevent the establishment of fouling. This study assessed the effectiveness of grooming with a five-headed rotating brush system on epoxy, ablative copper and two silicone fouling release (FR) coatings. These coatings were placed under static immersion at Port Canaveral, FL on a weekly and biweekly frequency. The results showed that grooming reduced fouling on all surfaces and was able to prevent fouling on the ablative copper and FR coatings when performed weekly. It was concluded that the grooming tool used for these tests was sufficient to remove biofilm and most hard fouling. However, when fouling pressure increased or when grooming was performed less frequently, insufficient forces were imparted by the brush to remove all of the established hard fouling organisms.

Sexual structure of population and reproduction cycle of Echinogammarus olivii (Crustacea, Isopoda) in the fouling community of Odessa Bay (Black Sea)

The sexual structure of Echinogammarus olivii (Milne-Edwards, 1830) population in the fouling community of Odessa Bay ( Black Sea ) has been determined. It is shown that t he annual dynamics of sexual structure is conditioned by the peculiarities of the breeding cycle of this species in the coastal fouling community. Throughout the year quantitative pre vale nce of females over males was recorded . E. olivii breeding process takes place throughout the year. Peak of the breeding of this species falls within the early spring when the water temperature reaches 10 °C. During the period of mass reproduction of crustaceans , sex ratio in the population is aligned . In this time the number of ovigerous females reaches 96% of the total. At the end of mass reproduction process the previous generation of adults die. Males eliminate earlier than females. In this period up to six females fall on one male. In early summer, 79% of population of these crustaceans comprise young immature species . In late summer, E. olivii , avoiding overheating, migrate from the coastal zone in the deeper layers and less warmed water. In the autumn crustaceans return to the coastal zone of the sea. At the same time , they reach sexual maturity and a re ready for a new cycle of reproduction. In the Black Sea this species can produce up to four generations per year. In winter, when water temperature is lower , sex ratio in the population of crustaceans is aligned again . Maximum absolute fe rtil ity of females E. olivii in the fouling community of Odessa Bay i s equal to 31 eggs. The relationship of this parameter with length and weight of the crustaceans is shown. Coefficients of the equations of the dependence of wet to dry weights of males, oviparous and non - oviparous females of E. olivii on their length are presented. Absolute fe rtility parameters growth with increasing size of crustaceans females has been detected .

Aquaculture as a vector for marine invasions in California

Although ballast water and hull fouling are widely recognized as important vectors for marine invasions, the risk posed by commercial aquaculture remains poorly quantified. To understand the importance of aquaculture as an invasion vector in California, we conducted an analysis of both current and historical introductions of marine and estuarine species associated with aquaculture using a comprehensive database (‘NEMESIS’) and permitting records for species imported into California. Our results showed that 126 non-native species associated with commercial aquaculture have been reported from California waters and 106 of these have become established. The vast majority are unintentional introductions linked to historical importation practices of the aquaculture industry. To understand the consequences of these invasions, we reviewed the literature on the impacts of mollusk and algal species introduced into California via aquaculture. Of the few studies we found, the majority demonstrated negative impacts on native species. Finally and significantly, we found that changes in aquaculture importation practices over the past decade have resulted in most shellfish currently being imported as larvae or juveniles. Consequently, rates of unintentional introductions have been reduced. We cautiously conclude that current aquaculture importation in California represents a minor risk as a vector for introductions of NIS.

Succession and seasonal dynamics of the epifauna community on offshore wind farm foundations and their role as stepping stones for non-indigenous species

In recent years, offshore wind energy in the shelf seas of the southern North Sea is experiencing a strong growth. Foundations are introduced in mainly sandy sediments, and the resulting artificial reef effect is considered one of the main impacts on the marine environment. We investigated the macrobenthic fouling community that developed on the concrete foundations of the first wind turbines built in Belgian marine waters. We observed a clear vertical zonation, with a distinction between a Telmatogeton japonicus dominated splash zone, a high intertidal zone characterised by Semibalanus balanoides, followed by a mussel belt in the low intertidal–shallow subtidal. In the deep subtidal, the species turnover was initially very high, but the community was soon dominated by few species (Jassa herdmani, Actiniaria spp. and Tubularia spp.), and only seasonal dynamics within this species assemblage were observed after 1–1½ years. Ten non-indigenous species (NIS) were found. In the intertidal, eight out of the seventeen typical intertidal species observed were NIS, while only two out of a species pool of 80 species were NIS in the deep subtidal. NIS were found to use the foundations to expand their range and strengthen their strategic position in the area.

Mediterranean fouling communities assimilate the organic matter derived from coastal fish farms as a new trophic resource

Currently, the lipid content of fish feeds includes high amounts of terrestrial vegetable oils, rich in n-6 fatty acids and poor in n-3 fatty acids. Sinking organic matter in the shape of fragmented pellets and fish faeces could be ingested by the surrounding fauna attracted to the submerged structures of aquaculture facilities or living in natural benthic habitats. Fatty acids contained in feed pellets were used as trophic markers to shed light on the assimilation and incorporation of aquaculture wastes by the invertebrate fauna associated to sea-cages. Eighteen macroinvertebrate species, and zooplankton, seaweeds and sediments were collected from two fish farms, one of which (control) had not been used as such for two years. This study demonstrates that macroinvertebrate fauna present in fouling can take up sinking organic matter from farms. Further research should be directed at assessing the potential implications of aquaculture production for the surrounding ecosystem.

Ship Energy Efficiency Performance Estimation Using Normal Daily Report Operational Data

A ship is designed to consume ceratin amount of fuel to meet its business objective. But as operating hours build up the state of machinery and surface condition of underwater hull change resulting in increased fuel consumption and rising operating cost. This calls for close monitoring and regular energy efficiency analysis of the ship’s energy systems. A true comprehensive energy analysis of the ship requires taking into consideration energy flow across each major power producing and consuming components of the energy systems including those originating from environmental and human factors such as hull fouling, wind, wave, current, ship’s draft, and sea temperature. The overall impact of all these factors on ship’s energy demand is extremely complex and have been rarely ever correctly assessed. The most effective approach so far to ship energy performance analysis/monitoring has been to quantify the contribution of each energy element by removing the effects of remaining. The authors in this paper conduct heat balance analysis of the steam power plant and apply filtering technique to the data from ship’s daily report to assess the effects of external factors such as hull fouling trim and wind resistance on fuel consumption to estimate the overall energy efficiency performance (EEP) of an LNG ship.

Inventory of alien and cryptogenic species of the Dodecanese (Aegean Sea, Greece): collaboration through COST action training school

The Dodecanese region has a high prevalence of marine alien species due to its close proximity to the Suez Canal and associated Suez shipping lanes, as well as its location at biogeographical border between sub-tropical and tropical biota. This region is therefore very important for the early detection of alien species entering the Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Canal and it is imperative that monitoring of alien species is continued in order to assess the levels of biological invasion. We present results of marine alien surveys, carried out in April 2014 on the island of Rodos. Surveys were performed by a team of marine taxonomic experts and students as part of an EU wide training school, coordinated by the COST Action TD1209 “Alien Challenge”. A variety of survey methods were employed to cover a number of coastal habitats. These included: rapid assessment surveys of epibiota on artificial structures in harbours, rapid assessment snorkelling surveys of biota on sublittoral bedrock, and quantified fishing surveys (both boat-seine and trammel net fishing methods). A total of 33 alien and cryptogenic species were recorded across all the survey techniques. Of these species, 9 represented first records for Rodos: the foraminiferan Amphisorus hemprichii, the polychaetes Branchiomma bairdi, Dorvillea similis, Hydroides dirampha and Pseudonereis anomala, the molluscs Aplysia parvula, Chama pacifica and Septifer cumingii, and the bryozoan Hippopodina feegeensis. Of note the record of the Lessepsian invader Dorvillea similis represents the second record in the Mediterranean Sea. Alien fish species represented a small but notable proportion of the diversity, biomass and number of individuals in fishing catch of both fishing methods. All alien fish species observed were already known to be present in Rodos. The addition of species firstly recorded in this study brings the total number of marine alien and cryptogenic species in the Dodecanese region up to 129 species. The vast majority of these alien species have entered unaided via the Suez Canal, but an increasing number have been introduced through hull fouling or ballast water transfer from shipping. The results highlight the value of conducting marine alien surveys with teams of a diverse range of taxonomic expertise, both in its scientific output and student training.

Twenty five years of invasion: management of the round goby Neogobius melanostomus in the Baltic Sea

The round goby, Neogobius melanostomus (Pallas, 1814), is one of the most invasive non-indigenous species in the Baltic Sea. It dominates coastal fisheries in some localities and is frequently found in offshore pelagic catches. This paper identifies management issues and suggests actions to be considered for post-invasion management. Priority should be given to the establishment of a coordinated pan-Baltic monitoring programme and associated data storage and exchange, as well as the compilation of landing statistics of the round goby in commercial and recreational fisheries. While eradication is unrealistic, population control that leads to minimising the risk of transfer to yet uncolonised areas in the Baltic Sea and adjacent waterbodies is feasible. This should comprise the requirement that the species be landed in commercial fishery bycatch, the management of ships’ ballast water and sediments, and hull fouling of inland and sea-going vessels, including recreational boats. Extensive involvement of stakeholders is crucial at all phases of the management process.

Recreational vessels as a vector for marine non-natives: developing biosecurity measures and managing risk through an in-water encapsulation system

Increasing recognition of non-natives as a threat to biodiversity and the functioning of marine ecosystems has brought with it the challenge of seeking novel management solutions. Hull fouling of recreational vessels is an important non-native vector, particularly in coastal areas where it is responsible for both introduction and secondary spread. This study introduces an in-water boat encapsulation system designed to limit transfer of marine non-natives, developed in response to the introduction of the ascidian Didemnum vexillum in Wales, UK. Here we describe the “decontamination berth”, examine the chemical concentrations required to eliminate D. vexillum and review biosecurity approaches for recreational vessels. Laboratory tests of treatment chemicals showed that acetic acid and sodium hypochlorite were equally effective in reducing D. vexillum growth following exposures of <30 min. In situ trials confirmed the ability of both chemicals to decrease D. vexillum colonies growing on marina pontoons. Efficiency trials found the mean loss of chemical from the berth during each pumping cycle would be equivalent to 417 g of active chlorine. Our preliminary testing indicates that devices such as the decontamination berth may be usefully employed to contain the spread of existing marine non-native species and to prevent future introductions at marine transportation hubs.

First record of Branchiomma bairdi McIntosh, 1885 (Annelida: Sabellidae) from Madeira Island, Portugal (northeastern Atlantic Ocean)

During a field survey to monitor marine non-indigenous species in several marinas of the Archipelago of Madeira (Portugal), the invasive sabellid polychaete Branchiomma bairdi McIntosh, 1885 was detected for the first time on Madeira Island, reaching densities of 238–516 ind.m -2 . B. bairdi was originally described from the western Atlantic (from Bermuda to Caribbean Sea) but the origin of this species is still unknown. This species has been recorded as an invasive species for the Pacific coast of Panama, Gulf of California, Mediterranean Sea, Canary Islands, and Australia. Hull fouling is the most likely vector for the introduction of the species.

Effect of the invasive bivalve Mytilopsis sallei on the macrofaunal fouling community and the environment of Yundang Lagoon, Xiamen, China

Mytilopsis sallei is a small marine bivalve and is considered as a serious pest. We assume that the invasive bivalve M. sallei changed the community structure of fouling macrofauna and reduced the species diversity index in Yundang Lagoon, Xiamen, China. In order to verify the above hypothesis, test panels were submerged seasonally at five stations during four seasons in Yundang Lagoon, and some chemical parameters were determined. The results showed there were significant differences in density and biomass of M. sallei and other fouling macrofauna with season and with station. The species diversity of the macrofaunal fouling community at stations B and F was low in summer, because high density of M. sallei was found at two stations. There were significantly positive correlations between density and biomass of M. sallei and water temperature and COD, and significantly negative correlations with pH. The results confirmed that this invasive species changed the density and biomass compositions of fouling macrofauna, reduced the species diversity index during the summer period, and somewhat worsened the aquatic environmental quality in Yundang Lagoon, because the pH and the DO were the lowest, and the BOD and the COD were the second lowest in summer among four seasons.