Hukou Research Articles

Private Educational Expenditure Inequality between Migrant and Urban Households in China’s Cities

This paper studies households’ expenditure on the education of children in China’s cities to assess how internal migrant families’ investment in the human capital of their offspring differs from that of local urban families. The private education-related expenditure reflects both households’ willingness to invest in human capital and institutional constraints, as China’s household registration (hukou) system prevents children without a local city hukou from enrolling in urban public schools. In-school fees (consisting of statutory tuition and institutional tuition fees) are commonly topped-up with substantial private tutoring expenditure. We apply multiple regression to the 2008 “Rural–Urban Migration Survey in China” data to analyze the average expenditure differences between temporary migrants, permanent migrants and locals. The findings are, after controlling for social and economic characteristics, that: (1) the overall spending on education of migrant households overwhelmingly exceeds that of locals, which is expected since migrants must finance privately all education-related expenses their children incur; (2) migrant households spend more on institutional tuition fees compared to households with a local city hukou, reflecting the varying severity of administrative hurdles faced by families; and (3) temporary migrants spend more on institutional tuition fees than permanent migrant households, but less in private tutoring.

Air pollution, healthcare use, and inequality: Evidence from China

This study provides the first investigation into the causal distributional effects of air pollution on healthcare utilization in China. Studies have addressed the average impact of air pollution in developed countries while overlooking its distributional effects in developing nations where inequality is evident. We obtained data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study and employed wind direction as an instrumental variable. The findings indicate that air pollution significantly increased inpatient care use among individuals aged 60 and above. Moreover, the study documents significant disparities between and within urban and rural populations. The mechanism analysis indicates that accessibility of healthcare services contributes to inequality. Contributing factors include China's Hukou system, health insurance system, and the distance to hospitals in rural areas. The findings indicate that air pollution intensifies health inequality in the developing world while suggesting that policies to increase healthcare equity could generate significant welfare benefits.

Whose Egg, Whose Sperm, Whose Household Registration? Reproductive Decisionmaking Among LGBT Parents in China

This article examines how LGBT individuals and couples in China make reproductive decisions in a sociopolitical context characterized by homophobia and an absence of LGBT familial rights and legal recognition. The existing literature on LGBTQ+ childbearing and family formation, based primarily in Euro-American countries, tends to focus on the central role of same-sex marriage legalization and features marriage as the core intimate bond that bestows parental and other familial rights. This article argues that China’s household registration (hukou) system is an equally, if not more, salient regulatory system that determines daily life opportunities, access to state-subsidized schooling and health care, life-long social welfare, and placement in a hierarchy of urban versus rural citizenship. LGBT intending parents in China make reproductive decisions with a child’s hukou in mind, treating genetic contributions, gestational labor, and legal parental status as flexible resources to achieve desired hukou outcomes. The hukou system encourages reproductive strategies that make and unmake LGBT kinship, securing family bonds that otherwise lack legal and social recognition while potentially risking parental precarity. The article suggests new directions for LGBT rights advocacy by focusing on the governing systems and statuses that determine access to key citizenship resources and family rights.

The impact of China's residence permit system on the floating population's willingness to settle in cities

China's residence permit system is the focus of the nation's household registration system reform and a crucial aspect of promoting the new people-centered urbanization. Based on the China Migrants Dynamic Survey, this study uses the probit regression model to investigate the impact of the residence permit system on the floating population's willingness to settle in cities and examines the moderating effect of local government's financial resources. The results show that the residence permit system has a significant promoting effect on the migrants’ willingness to settle. And local government financial resources can strengthen the effect of the residence permit system on the willingness to settle. Additional exploration shows that the residence permit system can enhance the willingness of floating populations to settle in urban areas by increasing their income and consumption levels. Heterogeneity analysis shows that for non-agricultural household registration, high-education, high-income, and interprovincial migrating groups, the incentive effect of the residence permit system is more stronger. Based on the findings, while improving the residence permit system and expanding its coverage groups, transfer payments from the central government to local governments should be increased to effectively improve the value of residence permits, promote the floating population's settlement in cities, and advance China's new urbanization.

Hukou Stratification and Job Precariousness between the State and Market Sectors in Contemporary China, 2010–2021

Echoing the global expansion of precarious employment, China has experienced a surge in labor flexibility and job deterioration since its integration into global capitalism. Existing research also highlighted the distinct features of the Chinese labor market related to its post-socialist nature. The Chinese household registration system, known as hukou, has been critical in explaining stratification and shaping labor market outcomes in China. However, hukou reforms in the recent decade have further relaxed restrictions on labor mobility and hukou conversion, suggesting that hukou may gradually lose its importance in transitional China. Building upon the global research on precarious work and dynamics of precariousness in employment in the Chinese context, I conceptualize job precariousness in the contemporary Chinese labor market in three dimensions. Using pooled data from the 2010 to 2021 Chinese General Social Survey, I examine how hukou stratification is associated with the three aspects of job precariousness, compare the relative importance of hukou with other market-related factors, and identify the disparities of the state and market sectors. The findings help contextualize global trends of precariousness by broadening the evidence base through a case in China.

Exploring the Influence of Internet Usage Attitudes on Educational Equity among Chinese Migrant Workers: A Regional Analysis

As urban builders, migrant workers (rural residents working in cities) should fairly enjoy urban educational resources. However, due to their social status, they face numerous educational challenges. This study explores how Chinese migrant workers' attitudes towards Internet usage influence educational equity, particularly in an environment where the Internet has become indispensable for learning, work, and daily life among Chinese residents. Using ANOVA and correlation analysis, the study investigates the relationship and influencing factors between migrant workers' attitudes towards Internet usage and educational equity. The research data were obtained from a 2020 survey conducted by the Peking University Chinese Social Sciences Survey Center, focusing primarily on Chinese migrant workers. The findings reveal that migrant workers' attitudes towards Internet usage significantly impact educational equity; groups that place greater emphasis on Internet usage exhibit better educational equity than others. Although the statistical differences in Internet usage attitudes among different regions are not significant, educational equity disparities among regions remain statistically significant. Based on these findings, recommendations are provided at the family, school, and government levels, aiming to address the digital divide, establish remote open education platforms, and improve the household registration system to enhance educational equity for migrant workers.

The Development Potential of Urbanization in China's Third-tier Cities: A Case Study of Taizhou Area

With the acceleration of China's urbanization process, the development potential of third-tier cities has become increasingly prominent, becoming an important part of the national urbanization strategy. Taking the Taizhou area as an example, this study first conducts a comprehensive evaluation of the current status of urbanization development in Taizhou, aiming to reveal its development level and characteristics in various aspects such as economy, society, culture, and environment. On this basis, a multi-dimensional evaluation system including urbanization level, quality of citizenization, urban functions, and urban governance is constructed to comprehensively consider Taizhou's performance in several key areas of urbanization development. In terms of data processing, the study uses the Taizhou Statistical Yearbook from 2018 to 2022 and other related reports as the main data sources to ensure the comprehensiveness and accuracy of the evaluation. Through the dimensionless processing of data and the weights of indicators determined by the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), the development potential of urbanization in Taizhou was quantified and evaluated. The research results show that the urbanization development in Taizhou has shown a steady growth trend, especially significant progress in the quality of citizenization and urban functions, but there is still room for improvement in some key areas. Based on the research results, targeted policy recommendations are proposed: first, to improve the quality of citizenization, including deepening the reform of the household registration system and improving the level of public services; second, to optimize the pattern of urbanization, strengthen regional collaborative development and county town construction; third, to promote the construction of new types of cities, covering the improvement of urban innovation capabilities and the construction of smart cities; fourth, to deepen the integrated development of urban and rural areas, promote resource sharing and coordinated economic growth, aiming to guide Taizhou to achieve more balanced and sustainable urbanization development, and provide a reference for similar cities.

The Development Potential of Urbanization in China's Third-tier Cities: A Case Study of Taizhou Area

With the acceleration of China's urbanization process, the development potential of third-tier cities has become increasingly prominent, becoming an important part of the national urbanization strategy. Taking the Taizhou area as an example, this study first conducts a comprehensive evaluation of the current status of urbanization development in Taizhou, aiming to reveal its development level and characteristics in various aspects such as economy, society, culture, and environment. On this basis, a multi-dimensional evaluation system including urbanization level, quality of citizenization, urban functions, and urban governance is constructed to comprehensively consider Taizhou's performance in several key areas of urbanization development. In terms of data processing, the study uses the Taizhou Statistical Yearbook from 2018 to 2022 and other related reports as the main data sources to ensure the comprehensiveness and accuracy of the evaluation. Through the dimensionless processing of data and the weights of indicators determined by the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), the development potential of urbanization in Taizhou was quantified and evaluated. The research results show that the urbanization development in Taizhou has shown a steady growth trend, especially significant progress in the quality of citizenization and urban functions, but there is still room for improvement in some key areas. Based on the research results, targeted policy recommendations are proposed: first, to improve the quality of citizenization, including deepening the reform of the household registration system and improving the level of public services; second, to optimize the pattern of urbanization, strengthen regional collaborative development and county town construction; third, to promote the construction of new types of cities, covering the improvement of urban innovation capabilities and the construction of smart cities; fourth, to deepen the integrated development of urban and rural areas, promote resource sharing and coordinated economic growth, aiming to guide Taizhou to achieve more balanced and sustainable urbanization development, and provide a reference for similar cities.

Investigating the Impact of Public Services on Rental Prices in Chinese Super Cities Based on Interpretable Machine Learning

In China, approximately 20% of the permanent population are renters, with 91% of leased land concentrated in first-tier and new first-tier cities. Education and healthcare are primary concerns for residents, significantly influencing rental decisions due to the household registration (hukou) system, competitive educational environment, and uneven distribution of medical resources. This study explores the distinct factors affecting rental decisions in China’s super cities, differing from other countries where renters prioritize proximity to work or urban amenities. Using advanced interpretable machine learning techniques, the study analyses rental markets in Beijing, Shanghai, and Shenzhen. The random forest model demonstrates superior performance in rent prediction across all three cities. The results indicate that the impact of public service resources on rent is notably higher in Beijing and Shanghai, while in Shenzhen, balanced urban planning results in property characteristics being more prominent in tenant preferences. These findings enhance the understanding of global rental market dynamics and provide recommendations for promoting sustainable rental housing development. The scientific novelty of this study lies in its application of advanced machine learning models to identify and quantify the unique influences of public service resources on rental markets in different urban contexts.

The reliability of multi‐source data linkage for population‐based cancer survival estimates: A study in a metropolitan cancer registry of China

AbstractBackgroundPopulation‐based cancer survival is a key metric in evaluating the overall effectiveness of health services and cancer control activities. Advancement in information technology enables accurate vital status tracking through multi‐source data linkage. However, its reliability for survival estimates in China is unclear.MethodsWe analyzed data from Dalian Cancer Registry to evaluate the reliability of multi‐source data linkage for population‐based cancer survival estimates in China. Newly diagnosed cancer patients in 2015 were included and followed until June 2021. We conducted single‐source data linkage by linking patients to Dalian Vital Statistics System, and multi‐source data linkage by further linking to Dalian Household Registration System and the hospital medical records. Patient vital status was subsequently determined through active follow‐up via telephone calls, referred to as comprehensive follow‐up, which served as the gold standard. Using the cohort method, we calculated 5‐year observed survival and age‐standardized relative survival for 20 cancer types and all cancers combined.ResultsCompared to comprehensive follow‐up, single‐source data linkage overestimated 5‐year observed survival by 3.2% for all cancers combined, ranging from 0.1% to 8.6% across 20 cancer types. Multi‐source data linkage provided a relatively complete patient vital status, with an observed survival estimate of only 0.3% higher for all cancers, ranging from 0% to 1.5% across 20 cancer types.ConclusionMulti‐source data linkage contributes to reliable population‐based cancer survival estimates in China. Linkage of multiple databases might be of great value in improving the efficiency of follow‐up and the quality of survival data for cancer patients in developing countries.

Enhancing the Implementation of Education Policies for Migrant Children in China

Since the era of reform and opening-up, policies concerning the education of children of migrants have continuously evolved and improved. However, several issues exist in the execution of these policies: additive implementation of policies, ambiguous positioning in policy execution, slow reform of the household registration system, and an imperfect policy supervision mechanism. This paper analyzes these issues from multiple dimensions through literature review and qualitative analysis, and delving into the underlying causes of the problems during policy implementation. Furthermore, based on these causes, a series of recommendations for improvement are proposed, which firstly need to adjust the distribution of interests and enhance the clarity of policy objectives and effectiveness tracking. It also requires the establishment of an efficient supervision system to promote the reform process of the household registration system. In addition, the feasibility of the policy can be increased by strengthening the publicity and promotion of the policy. These recommendations can ensure the effective implementation of education policies concerning children of the migrant population, thereby safeguarding the educational rights of children of migrants.

The Transformation of Traditional Peasants: An Age–Period–Cohort Analysis of the Modernity of Peasants in China

Using the data of Chinese General Social Survey from 2010 to 2018, this study measured the modernity of Chinese peasants from four dimensions: equality and autonomy, positive attitude, general confidence, and open-mindedness. Hierarchical age–period–cohort models were introduced to assess the effect of age, period, and cohort on modernity and to further explore the heterogeneities in the effect of education and off-farm work experience on modernity among various birth cohorts. Age effects consistently show significance, with the level of individual modernity decreasing as age increases. However, the rate of decline gradually slows down. Period effects are generally significant and contribute to the advancement of modernity. Cohort effects are significant in most cohorts. The modernity of peasants born between 1941 and 1960 show a consistent decline, reaching its lowest point in the cohort 1961–1970 and then increasing steadily among those born after 1970. Possible explanations were proposed from the perspective of changes in the land property system and household registration system in China. We also found that the positive effect of education is stronger for younger cohorts, whereas the positive effect of off-farm experience is stronger for older cohorts. This study enriches Inkeles’s research on individual modernization and reveals the transformation process of traditional peasants in developing countries.

Recent progress in hukou reform and labor market integration in China: 1996–2022

To investigate the household registration system (hukou) reform in China, it is important to quantify the thresholds of obtaining hukou in urban areas at the city level. We build a new index to measure the likelihood of obtaining urban hukou for migrants in each destination city, termed the “settlement probability”, based on individual information of floating population from the population census and hukou policies of 332 cities from 1996 to 2022. We find that the average settlement probability has been steadily increasing since 1999, reaching 91% in 2022, and 15 provinces have achieved low thresholds. We further build a simple general spatial equilibrium model with the factor of settlement probability to investigate the impacts of hukou reform. The empirical analysis shows there is a mismatch between settlement probability and settlement intentions. Moreover, we find that higher settlement probability is significantly correlated with more migrants' inflow, lower migrants' wages and higher urban housing prices, especially in more developed cities. Therefore, hukou reform is crucial for enhancing the integration of China's labor market.

Impact of digital infrastructure construction on the migrants’ utilization of basic public health services in China

BackgroundGlobal digitalization significantly impacts public health by improving healthcare access for marginalized populations. In China, socioeconomic disparities and the Hukou system create significant barriers for the migrant population to access basic public health services (BPHS). This study aimed to assess how digital infrastructure construction (DIC) affects BPHS utilization among China’s migrant populations, filling a gap in the literature regarding the relationship between digital advancements and health service accessibility.MethodsThis research used micro-level data from the 2018 China Migrants Dynamic Survey and incorporated variables aligned with the Broadband China policy to employ a comprehensive empirical strategy. It included baseline regressions, robustness checks through propensity score matching and machine learning techniques, and heterogeneity analysis to explore the differential impacts of DIC based on gender, age, education level, and Hukou status.ResultsThe findings revealed that DIC significantly enhances the likelihood of migrants establishing health records and registering with family doctors, demonstrating quantifiable improvements in health service utilization. Heterogeneity analysis further indicated that the beneficial impacts of DIC were more pronounced among female migrants, those with higher education levels, younger populations, and urban Hukou holders.ConclusionsDIC plays a crucial role in bridging the accessibility gap to BPHS for migrant populations in China, contributing to narrowing health disparities and advancing social equity. These results emphasize the significance of digital infrastructure in public health strategies and offer valuable insights for policymakers, healthcare providers, and researchers. Future research should prioritize longitudinal studies on the sustained effects of DIC and tailor digital health initiatives to meet the unique needs of migrant populations, promoting inclusive health policy planning and implementation.

Is ‘Common Prosperity’ Badly Needed in Mainland China? Evidence on the Variance Convergence of Per-Capita GDP among 31 Cities and Provinces

ABSTRACT This research paper examines the necessity of implementing “common prosperity” in mainland China, as emphasized by Xi Jinping during the 20th Congress of CCP on October 16, 2022. The issue of provincial income divergence remains a challenge to China’s sustainable growth. The new concept of “common prosperity” stresses the requirement of reducing income inequality for the balance of growth and stability in the next development phase of China. This study analyzes regional income inequality and convergence using the club convergence approach. This method offers more precise indications of economic symmetry than traditional unit root tests, enabling clearer policy implications. The empirical analysis reveals that while full cross-provincial variance convergence is unsustainable, the 31 cities and provinces can be grouped based on club variance convergence of the per capita GDP. The past and current public policies could have an impact on the imbalanced convergence, such as “the richer got more” from the fiscal transfers, the hukou system, and the educational and tax justice among cities and provinces.

How migrant composition affects attitudes of urban locals in urban China: A two-scale study

Scholars have shown increasing interest in how inter-group interactions in different spaces influence inter-group relations. However, there has been limited recent knowledge from China on this topic. In China, its hukou system has differentiated internal migrants and urban locals in many spheres for over 40 years, causing significant social exclusion and persistent prejudice towards internal migrants in cities. However, surveys and research on inter-group relationships have mainly focused on investigating migrants, neglecting urban locals. In essence, how the diverse compositions of the migrant population have influenced natives' attitudes towards immigrants needs further examination. Using the China Migrants Dynamic Survey 2017, this study applies multi-level mixed-effects ordered logistic regression models to examine how six aspects of migrant composition at the neighborhood and district levels affect urban locals' three attitudes towards migrants: hostility, superficial acceptance, and deep acceptance. This study addresses the demographic transitions of the migrant population and the socio-economic context of contemporary China and applies the contact and conflict theories to interpret the results. Findings reveal that exposure to the migrant population with a high share of rural-hukou migrants and inner-province migrants harms inter-group understanding. Exposure to blue-collar migrants, above-college education migrants, and migrants who frequently communicate with locals leads to positive contacts and improves urban locals’ attitudes towards migrants. The effect of migrant compositions on hostility, superficial, and deep acceptance varies. In addition to the frequently studied neighborhood level, migrant composition at the district level is also vital in influencing inter-group relationships. Last, the effects of migrant composition also vary among different sub-groups of urban locals.

Multidimensional energy poverty and its urban-rural and regional disparities: Evidence from China

This study develops a conceptual framework of multidimensional energy poverty by using a multidimensional poverty index that considers energy accessibility, affordability, and service availability. The index is then utilized to evaluate the extent, depth, and intensity of multidimensional energy poverty (MEP) in China. Specifically, this study aims to identify factors that contribute to the urban-rural and regional MEP disparities in China. The results reveal that (1) MEP is widespread in China; (2) Rural areas experience 2.5 times more MEP compared to urban areas, while inland regions have 1.5 times higher MEP rates than coastal regions; and (3) these disparities are primarily caused by low-income levels, lack of non-agricultural employment opportunities, and educational attainment. Therefore, policies targeting low-income, unemployed, and less-educated individuals are necessary to address this issue. In addition, promoting urbanization and eliminating the household registration system are crucial steps to address MEP disparities in China. Furthermore, improving energy infrastructure and increasing knowledge dissemination can also help reduce reliance on traditional energy sources.

Can digital financial inclusion help reduce migrant workers' overwork? Evidence from China.

Migrant workers in China are migrants from the rural to the urban areas who usually work in the cities and return to the countryside after a certain period. Due to China's strict household registration system, they differ significantly from urban residents' access to public services. However, at the same time, China's workers are facing a severe phenomenon of overwork, and the group of migrant workers is even more hard-hit by overwork, which will cause various adverse effects on workers and society and should attract the attention of all sectors of society. This paper focuses on the impact of digital financial inclusion on the overwork of migrant workers. This study considered cross-sectional data containing 98,047 samples based on the 2017 China Migrants Dynamic Survey 2017 (CMDS) and China Municipal Statistical Yearbook after robustness tests and heterogeneity analysis using probit models. (1) digital financial inclusion can effectively alleviate overwork among migrant workers; (2) the impact of digital finance on overwork is more significant for the new generation, digitized industries, and self-employed migrant workers; it is also more significant for the South, East, and small and medium-sized cities than for the North, the Midwest, and large cities; (3) job quality and income are crucial factors in how digital financial inclusion affects overwork among migrant workers. Digital financial inclusion can improve the quality of employment for migrant workers and alleviate overwork. However, the income substitution effect partially reduces the inhibitory impact of digital financial inclusion on overwork. Continuously promote the development of digital inclusive finance, improve laws and regulations, and protect the labor rights and interests of migrant workers. At the same time, vocational training and skills upgrading for rural migrant workers should be strengthened to improve the quality of their employment so that they can leave the secondary labor market and enter the primary labor market.

Citizenship Redefined: China’s Hukou System Reform and the Status of North Korean Refugee Women and Their Children in China

Citizenship Redefined: China’s Hukou System Reform and the Status of North Korean Refugee Women and Their Children in China

International Trade Liberalization and Domestic Institutional Reform: Effects of WTO Accession on Chinese Internal Migration Policy

Abstract Economic institutions that impede factor mobility become more costly when an economy experiences substantial transitions such as trade liberalization. I study how trade triggers changes in labor institutions that regulate internal migration in the context of China’s Hukou system. Using a newly collected dataset on prefecture-level migration policies, I document an increase in promigrant regulations following WTO entry and estimate the impact of prefecture-level tariffs on exports on migration regulations from 2001 to 2007. I find that regions facing more export market liberalization enacted more migrant-friendly regulations.