Household Water Research Articles

Use of engineering economic equivalence tenets to prioritize water source(s) for use by households, ‘The Case of Mbeya City – Tanzania’

ABSTRACT In Tanzania, inadequate water access impacts 26% of urban and 38% of rural populations, heavily reliant on piped water systems prone to rationing. Low-income earners suffer from high water bills and poor water quality. Alternative sources like gravity-fed systems, rain harvesting, and drilled wells are overlooked, lacking evaluation using engineering economic equivalence (EEE) principles for prioritization. This study fills this gap by examining the literature and using Mbeya City data from users of tapped water, rain harvesting, and drilled wells to prioritize household water sources. EEE computations determine the present worth, valuing tapped water systems, rain harvesting, and drilled wells at Tshs 11,009,424/-, 10,283,000/-, and 12,099,940/-, respectively. Although rain harvesting seems favorable, it is unsuitable for drinking, and tapped water systems involve fluctuating daily costs. Consequently, the ‘drilled water system’ is the preferred option for sustainable household water access.

Development of Point of Use Household Water Purification SystemUsing Locally Sourced Clay Material

Access to clean and safe drinking water remains a critical challenge, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. This study focused on the development of a point-of-use household water purification system utilizing locally sourced clay material. The clay, collected from Imiegba in Edo State, Nigeria, was molded into ceramic filters and fired to create a porous structure essential for filtration. The system's effectiveness was evaluated by testing water from the Omouku River before and after filtration, with analyses conducted for physicochemical parameters, heavy metals, and microbial contaminants. Results indicated significant improvements in water quality, including the complete elimination of heterotrophic bacteria and reductions in heavy metal concentrations. The study underscores the potential of locally available materials in providing a sustainable and affordable solution for improving access to safe drinking water in regions with limited resources. Recommendations include regular monitoring, community education, and further research to optimize the filtration system's performance.

Prototype of Household Water Quality Monitoring System by Utilizing Internet of Things

This research aims to develop a household water quality monitoring system using the Internet of Things (IoT) by monitoring water quality parameters such as pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), turbidity, and temperature in real time. The prototyping method in the development of this system allows continuous interaction between developers and users to meet the needs of the system. Data is collected through literature studies and observations to support system development. The results of this study are that every 1 minute, the sensor data is sent to the server, and then the sensor data will be displayed on the web platform; if the sensor data value is not at the predetermined value limit according to Permenkes number 2 of 2023, the displayed value will be red. The data collected by the sensor is sent to the server built with Node.js and stored in the PostgreSQL database. The monitoring results will also be displayed on a 20x4 I2C LCD. The system successfully monitors water quality parameters in real time, with results displayed on a web platform that is easily accessible to users. The implementation of IoT technology in this system provides an innovative solution for increasing public awareness of the importance of clean water quality. With this system, it is expected to create a healthier and safer household environment for families.

Assessment of water, sanitation and hand hygiene practices in rural households of Tamil Nadu: A cross-sectional study.

Water is a basic human right essential to all for sustainable development. Sanitation is one of the determinants of quality of life and the human development index. Drinking unsafe water impairs health through illnesses such as diarrhoea, and untreated excreta contaminates ground waters and surface waters used for drinking, bathing and household purposes. To assess the existing facilities and practices related to drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene among household members in the rural population of Tamil Nadu and to assess whether accessibility and availability of safe drinking water and adequate sanitation under sustainable development goal 6 is being achieved in the rural population of Tamil Nadu. This community-based cross-sectional study was carried out among 200 households in the rural field practice area of the Medical College and Hospital, Thiruvallur district, Tamil Nadu. The participants were interviewed using a predesigned semi-structured questionnaire on their existing water, sanitation, and hand washing facilities and practices. Our study observed that 71.5% of households had piped water supply into their dwellings, 82% were using sanitary latrines and 28% had closed drainage for draining wastewater. Twenty-eight percent were using soap and water for hand-washing before food, and 82.5% were doing hand-washing with soap after using the toilet. In our study, the association between sanitary practices and education, occupation and socioeconomic status was statistically significant. Our study emphasized the need for strengthening health education and behaviour change communication regarding sanitation and hand hygiene practices.

A system dynamics modelling assessment of water-energy-food resource demand futures at the city scale: Goma, Democratic Republic of Congo

Understanding future demands of water, energy, and food (WEF) resources is essential to achieve sustainable management of these resources. Based on a survey of 90 households, this study provides an analysis of household water, energy, and food security for the city of Goma, Democratic Republic of Congo, where there is a lack of any such assessment. Water supply is largely unimproved. Electricity supply is fairly reliable in some parts of the city, but not others. Most residents rely on charcoal burning for food preparation. Dietary Diversity Scores are low indicating stable, but low food security. Data collected were used to develop an integrated WEF system dynamics model that was applied to simulate household-level resource demand. To assess future resources demand, four scenarios developed by the Global Scenario Group were simulated. Findings reveal that the 'Great Transition' scenario exerts lower impact on resources demand, representing the most likely trajectory to achieve sustainable socio-economic development and management. However, achieving the conditions required for a ‘Great Transition’ could be challenging in Goma, which is characterised by low incomes, poor access to resources, and the threat of armed conflict. To achieve greater efficiency in resources utilisation and to prepare for the future, a number of recommendations are made, including energy supply diversification, altered agricultural practices to diversify diets, and expansion and improvement of water supply infrastructure. This work provides a basis for similar assessments in DRC and central Africa, highlighting the need for integrated resources management and assessment for regional opportunities toward sustainable development.

EVALUATION OF THE EFFICACY OF CHLORINE-CONTAINING COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS FOR WATER DECONTAMINATION AGAINST COLIFORM BACTERIA

Problem. Water is a key factor in the transmission of intestinal infections. During war conflicts, the risk of outbreaks of such infections increases due to infrastructure damage, the inaccessibility of central water supplies, and the impossibility of governmental institutions to control drinking water quality. In such situations, the need arises for household water treatment methods. Aim. To evaluate the efficacy of seven commercial water treatment products available in the Ukrainian market against enteric bacteria and to compare their efficacy. Methods. The activity of water purification products against the model microorganism Escherichia coli ATCC25922 was evaluated using serial dilution methods followed by viable count assessment. The main results: High efficacy of the studied preparations against enteric bacteria was detected. In each test, a significant decrease in the initial titer of Escherichia coli from 1,2·10 6 CFU/cm 3 to ˂ 10 CFU/cm 3 was observed after the exposure time declared by the manufacturer. Conclusions: The studied water treatment products from Ukrainian and foreign manufacturers were effective against enteric bacteria and met the WHO criteria for efficiency, regardless of the nature of the active compound (chlorine dioxide, sodium dichloroisocyanurate, or polyhexamethylene guanidine hydrochloride).

Factors Affecting Borehole Water Project Sustainability in Dodoma, Tanzania: A case of Nghong'onha ward

Access to a clean, safe, and affordable water supply for domestic use is a fundamental human right. However, in many urban areas in sub-Saharan African countries, including Tanzania, not all people have access to water due to the operation, maintenance, and sustainability challenges of the built infrastructure. This study assessed factors affecting the sustainability of the Borehole water project in Dodoma Region, taking a case of Nghong'onha ward in the City Council of Dodoma. Specifically, the study focused on household water use practices and examined the factors affecting the sustainability of borehole water projects. The study used both primary and secondary data of a quantitative and qualitative nature collected through interviews, observations, and a documentary review. This study employed probability and non-probability sampling techniques to select a sample of respondents and key informants. The collected data were analysed for descriptive statistics such as frequencies and means and binary logistic regression analysis, whereas qualitative data were analysed using the qualitative content analysis technique. The study found that, on average, households consumed 82.27 litres of water daily, and 47.5% of respondents had to wait for 31–45 minutes to fetch water at the water point. Furthermore, findings revealed that community meetings (0.000), distance to water points (0.000), water facility spare parts availability (0.054), payment modality (0.023), and annual maintenance (0.011) significantly affected borehole water project sustainability. The study recommends that interventions to improve access to domestic water supply in the study area should focus on improving water supply infrastructure and the built infrastructure's operation, maintenance, and sustainability.

Моделирование системы очистки сточных вод животноводческих ферм

Among the sources of pollution of surface water bodies from agricultural activities, livestock, pig and poultry complexes can be prioritized, which are uncontrolled and diffuse sources of suspended solids, organic compounds, biogenic elements, heavy metals and pathogenic microflora, which causes biochemical pollution and has a particularly detrimental effect on the state of inland reservoirs. Wastewater from agricultural processing enterprises and household water from rural settlements with unpredictable pollutants play a significant role in pollution. The livestock sector is one of the largest consumers of water. The large number of animals in a confined space, the use of hydraulic harvesting systems when removing their waste products, leads to the formation of manure in significant quantities. Sanitary and hygienic standards in industrial premises are supported with the help of water – animals are washed with it, rooms are cleaned, and they are disinfected, food is prepared, dishes and equipment are washed, manure is washed off with water, and so on. Accordingly, as the demand for water in animal husbandry increases, the volume of wastewater discharge that contains manure into nearby water bodies increases. The effluents that are formed as a result of the activities of the livestock sector are classified as containing a large amount of harmful substances with a high concentration. Depending on the sources of pollution and the main pollutants, technical solutions should be developed to reduce the volume of wastewater and its treatment. The effectiveness of their functioning can be ensured with the help of modern information processing methods, using methods of system analysis of complex objects based on a mathematical description of the technological process. To analyze the state of the treatment system as a whole and predict the development of emergency situations, a software implementation of a wastewater treatment system for livestock farms was created.

Why do people save water? A systematic review of household water consumption behaviour in times of water availability uncertainty

ABSTRACT Continued global warming is projected to increase the severity of droughts, and, as water scarcity intensifies in different regions, water demand-side management (DSM) has emerged as an important topic. In this study, we present an overview of recent research on the factors that influence water consumption behaviour, considering the scenario of global water availability changes. To do so, we reviewed 55 articles, published from 2010 to 2022, that focused on water consumption behaviour in a drought context. In the reviewed articles, we identified six factors that are most frequently addressed in the literature: psychological factors, water-saving technologies, awareness, water availability context, socioeconomic/demographic characteristics, and governmental policies. Based on the analysis of the findings in the literature regarding these factors, we developed an integrated framework that clarifies how they are interconnected and influence household water consumption.

Geospatial modelling of seasonal water and electricity consumption in Doha's residential buildings using multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) and Bootstrap analysis

Ensuring sustainable water and electricity consumption in urban residential buildings is a growing challenge worldwide, particularly in rapidly developing regions with harsh climates. This study examines the seasonal variation of water and electricity consumption in residential buildings in Doha, Qatar, exploring the interconnectedness of land use/land cover (LULC) and socio-demographic characteristics with household water and electricity consumption. For this purpose, we employed statistical analysis (i.e. Pearson correlation and Bootstrap analysis) and advanced geostatistical models, including Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) and Multiscale Geographically Weighted Regression (MGWR), to analyze and monitor the spatial and seasonal variations of water and electricity consumption. The methods involved assessing the relationship between land surface temperature (LST), household water-electricity consumption, and analyzing the impact of demographic variables. Key findings indicate significant spatiotemporal variations in consumption influenced by changes in LULC and demographic characteristics such as household size and structure. The findings highlight the need for integrated urban planning and energy policies that consider the impacts of LULC and demographic changes to enhance energy efficiency and sustainability in urban settings. Furthermore, the results underscore the importance of addressing the complex interplay between urban development and resource consumption in policy-making.

Overview of the low-cost technologies for household water treatment in developing countries

ABSTRACT This study explored various low-cost water treatment technologies that are used to minimize levels of pathogens and contaminants in raw water. The paper focused on techniques such as cloth filtration, boiling, chlorination, and solar water disinfection. In the communities, cloth filtration is applied as the initial step of treating raw water with the proper choice of cloth fabrics followed by either boiling, chlorination or solar water disinfection. In low-income communities with unclean burning fuel sources, boiling was found to be the preferred method. Chlorination was also a popular technique associated with the challenges of low or high levels of free chlorine at the point of use and disinfection by-products. Solar water disinfection required optimal residence time and detection sensors for microorganism inactivation. Overall, the paper provided valuable insights into the different low-cost water treatment techniques that are commonly used for household applications, particularly in developing countries.

Association between chlorine-treated drinking water, the gut microbiome, and enteric pathogen burden in young children in Haiti: An observational study

ObjectiveThe effects of sanitation and hygiene interventions on the gut microbiome and enteric pathogen burden are not well understood. We measured the association between free chlorine residue (FCR) levels in drinking water, microbiome composition, and stool enteric pathogens in infants and young children in Haiti. MethodsFCR levels were measured in household drinking water and enteric pathogen burden was evaluated using multiplex RT-PCR of stool among 131 children from one month to five years of age living in Mirebalais, Haiti. Microbiome profiling was performed using metagenomic sequencing. ResultsMost individuals lived in households with undetectable FCR measured in the drinking water (112/131, 86%). Detection of enteric pathogen DNA in stool was common and did not correlate with household water FCR. The infant microbiome in households with detectable FCR demonstrated reduced richness (fewer total number of species, P = 0.04 Kruskall–Wallis test) and less diversity by Inverse Simpson measures (P = 0.05) than households with undetectable FCR. Infants in households with a detectable FCR were more likely to have abundant Bifidobacterium. Using in vitro susceptibility testing, we found that some Bifidobacterium species were resistant to chlorine. ConclusionsFCR in household drinking water did not correlate with enteric pathogen burden in our study.

Dietary Iodine Intake and Sources among Residents in Zhejiang Province 10 Years after Reducing Iodine Concentration in Iodized Salt.

We aimed to assess dietary iodine intake and sources in Zhejiang Province a decade after a reduction in iodine concentration in iodized salt. Three-day 24 h dietary recall and household weighing were used, complemented by "Chinese Food Composition" data. Household water and salt samples were collected from 5890 residents and analyzed. Differences in iodized salt consumption rates were observed across the following regions: inland (84.20%), subcoastal (67.80%), and coastal (37.00%) areas. The median (P25, P75) iodine concentration in water and diet were 2.2 (0.9, 4.0) μg/L and 142.05 (58.94, 237.11) μg/d, respectively, with significant regional differences in dietary concentration (inland [185.61 μg/d], subcoastal [153.42 μg/d], and coastal [75.66 μg/d]). Males (149.99 μg/d) and iodized salt consumers (191.98 μg/d) had a significantly higher dietary iodine intake than their counterparts. Regions were ranked as follows based on the proportions of individuals meeting the recommended dietary iodine intake: inland (69.40%), subcoastal (56.50%), and coastal (34.10%) areas. Dietary sources included salt (48.54%), other foods (32.06%), drinking water (8.84%), laver (4.82%), kelp (3.02%), and other seafood (2.32%). The qualified iodized salt consumption rate was significantly lower than the national standard. Zhejiang Province should continue implementing measures to control iodine deficiency through salt iodization, education efforts, and increasing the qualified iodized salt consumption rate.

Multi-level analysis of access to drinking water in rural communes in the south of the Kaffrine region, Senegal

In Senegal, there are disparities in access to drinking water at several levels. There are major differences between urban and rural areas. In rural areas, poverty, the abundance or scarcity of water infrastructure, and the distance between the place of residence and the place of supply are, to some extent, factors in the disparity in rates of access to drinking water from one village to another and, within the same village, from one household to another. Determining the sources of variance between villages and households regarding access to drinking water is based on the identification of several explanatory variables, both at the aggregate level (village level) and at the individual level (household level). Multilevel analysis has shown that differences in household access to drinking water are due to several factors that can be grouped into two categories: contextual variables that vary from one village to another, and individual characteristics that differ from one household to another. The aim of this article is to analyze the factors that explain the disparity in access to drinking water in rural communes in the south of the Kaffrine region. The usefulness of multilevel analysis lies in its ability to solidify causal inference in the associations between the infrastructural levels of villages, in terms of water facilities, and their impact on the level of access to drinking water of rural households as reported (Bringe and Golaz in Manuel pratique d’analyse multiniveau, Ined Éditions, Aubervilliers, 2017), as reported (Diane et al., in Analyse multiniveau pour expliquer la prévalence d’impacts sanitaires néfastes autorapportés et l’adaptation lorsqu’il fait très chaud et humide en été dans les secteurs les plus défavorisés des neuf villes les plus populeuses du Québec en 2011, 2015).

Design of an Intermittent Biosand Filter Amended with Oyster Shell Powders for the Improvement of Household Water Quality in Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar

Access to safe drinking water and the wide spread of water-borne diseases are major challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar. Based on this, a water purification models has been developed which can use on a local scale. It consists of an intermittent biosand filter amended with oyster shell powders designed from local materials. The performance of the filter was evaluated through physicochemical and bacteriological analyses using standardized methods on raw polluted well water with previously determined initial D0 characteristics. The effectiveness of the designed filter was assessed and a filtration operation was carried out over a monitoring period of 13 days (D13) prior to 7 days of acclimatization of the system. With a filtration rate of 0.75l/h-1, there is a very strong reduction in turbidity from 35.59NTU to 0 NTU and in BOD5 from 125mg/l to 2mg/l. More so, bacteriological analyses reveal a progressive and complete decrease from D0 to D13 of fecal coliforms from 9000 CFU/100ml to 0 CFU/100ml; total coliforms from 6,000 CFU/100 ml to 0 CFU/100 ml and fecal streptococci from 10,800 CFU/100 ml to 0 CFU/100 ml. Compared to the classic ceramic filter, no significant difference in the Duncan test is reported for the highlighted parameters. This filter presents potential among other water treatment methods at the local scale for reducing the risks of water-borne diseases and achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6 in developing countries.

The benefit of clean water on child health: An empirical analysis with specific reference to Escherichia Coli water contamination

Microorganism-mediated degradation of water quality is a major public health concern in developing countries. Previous literature has shown an association between household water pollution and childhood diarrhoea; however, its effects on child growth, respiratory health, and infant mortality have not been widely investigated. This study assesses the impact of household drinking water contaminated with Escherichia coli (E. coli) on child's weight-for-height and weight-for-age z-scores, acute respiratory infections (ARI), and diarrhoea incidence among five years children, and on infant mortality rate (IMR) in Pakistan. We use district-level geospatial information and the latest waves of unique Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) data containing information on ‘point-of-service delivery’ (POS) and ‘point-of-consumption’ (POC) water quality, collected for the first time on a large scale in Pakistan. We employ an instrumental variable approach to address potential endogeneity issues in household drinking water quality, finding that POC drinking water contamination significantly affects children's weight-for-height and weight-for-age z-scores and diarrhoea but insignificantly affects ARI and IMR. The effects of contaminated water are found to be particularly significant in children older than 6 months of age and an insignificant effect is observed for younger children. To protect the children from growth failure and contracting diarrhoea, household water quality should be improved.

Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Facilities in Sikkim: Findings from National Family Health Survey (NFHS) 5

ABSTRACT The UN General Assembly has recognized access to improved drinking water and sanitation as a fundamental right. Despite this, a significant portion of the global population lacked access to safely managed drinking water (around 25%) and improved sanitation (around 50%) in 2020. India, the second most populous country, has approximately 3.7% of its population without access to improved drinking water and 31% without access to improved sanitation. This article examines factors influencing household access to improved drinking water and sanitation in Sikkim, India, using National Family Health Survey (NFHS) 5 data. The findings reveal that urban households, older, unmarried, female-headed households, with smaller families, earning higher incomes, located in the North, West and South districts, were more likely to have access to improved drinking water. Similarly, households with unmarried heads, located in higher wealth quintiles, located in the East district, were more likely to have access to improved sanitation facilities. The study suggests subsidizing the cost of improved water and sanitation services for poor rural households and increasing public investment to make these facilities more affordable for them.

SODIS with hydrogen peroxide: an effective household water treatment option under sub-tropical climatic conditions of bangladesh.

Solar disinfection (SODIS) is an affordable and sustainable Household Water Treatment (HWT) method endorsed by WHO. However, its limitations include longer sunlight exposure requirements, incomplete microbial inactivation, and post-SODIS microbial regrowth during monsoon and winter seasons in subtropical climates. To address these limitations, the performance of SODIS with H2O2 for microbial inactivation during the monsoon and winter seasons in Bangladesh was evaluated following the WHO HWT protocols. Moreover, the process was verified using drinking water samples collected from restaurants, households, and slums. All SODIS experiments were conducted using reflective reactors with PET bottles and plastic bags, adding 10 mg/L of H2O2, and exposing them to sunlight for 6 h. The results showed that E. coli was completely inactivated within 2 h in plastic bags and within 3 h in PET bottles during the monsoon season, achieving an LRV of > 5. In winter, both achieved an LRV > 5 within 3 h and plastic bags showed more efficient in microbial inactivation than PET bottles. The microbial inactivation rates were 5 times higher than those of conventional SODIS. No regrowth of microorganisms was observed during the subsequent post-SODIS period of 12 h and 24 h at room temperature. The study findings suggest that SODIS with H2O2 has the potential for complete microorganism inactivation with shorter sunlight exposure in subtropical climates with moderate to low solar irradiation and can be adopted as a reliable disinfection option for rural and urban communities with unsafe drinking water supply.

Household Water Insecurity Is Associated With Food Insecurity in 2 Districts in the Northern Region of Ghana

Household Water Insecurity Is Associated With Food Insecurity in 2 Districts in the Northern Region of Ghana

Enhancing Microbial Disinfection in Household Water Treatment by Combining a Silver–Ceramic Tablet with Copper and Chlorine Technologies

Enhancing Microbial Disinfection in Household Water Treatment by Combining a Silver–Ceramic Tablet with Copper and Chlorine Technologies