Iranian Households Research Articles

Fiscal Policy, Inequality and Poverty in Iran: Assessing the Impact and Effectiveness of Taxes and Transfers the Poor in the Developing World

Using the Iranian Household Expenditure and Income Survey (HEIS) for 2011/12, we apply the marginal contribution approach to determine the impact and effectiveness of each fiscal intervention, and the fiscal system as a whole, on inequality and poverty. Net direct and indirect taxes combined reduce the Gini coefficient by 0.0644 points and the headcount ratio by 61 percent. When the monetized value of in-kind benefits in education and health are included, the reduction in inequality is 0.0919 Gini points. Based on the magnitudes of the marginal contributions, we find that the main driver of these reductions is the Targeted Subsidy Program, a universal cash transfer program implemented in 2010 to compensate individuals for the elimination of energy subsidies. The main reduction in poverty occurs in rural areas, where the headcount ratio declines from 44 to 23 percent. In urban areas, fiscally-induced poverty reduction is more modest: the headcount ratio declines from 13 to 5 percent. Taxes and transfers are similar in their effectiveness in achieving their inequality-reducing potential. By achieving 40 percent of its inequality-reducing potential, the income tax is the most effective intervention on the revenue side. On the spending side, Social Assistance transfers are the most effective and they achieve 45 percent of their potential. Taxes are especially effective in raising revenue without causing poverty to rise, indicating that the poor are largely spared from being taxed. In contrast, since the bulk of transfers are not targeted to the poor, they are not very effective: the most effective ones achieve 20 percent of their poverty reduction potential. The effectiveness of the Targeted Subsidy Program could be improved by eliminating the transfer to top deciles and re-allocating the freed funds to the poor.

Comparing the Quality of Iodine in Edible Salt in Iranian Households Living in the Southern Province of Khorasan-e-Razavi Using WHO Standards (Years 2010–2015)

Iodine deficiency disorder among Iranians is a major health-related issue. The aim of this study was to determine iodine concentration in household salt. To sample the iodized salt products, the authors visited all wholesale warehouses of two cities of Bajestan and Gonabad in Khorasan-Razavi, Iran, and randomly purchased three packages of each brand of factory salt distributed through those centers. The sampling procedure was continued over the course of five years (2010–2015). In the 5-year study period, 82 samples of 23 different brands of factory salt were sampled. The most frequent samples were classified into three groups based on their iodine content (ppm = mg iodine per kg of salt): under standard limit (<20 ppm); allowable standard limit (20–50 ppm); over standard limit (>50 ppm). The tests showed that 67% of samples maintained a good level, 26.8% possessed an acceptable level, and 6% had unacceptable levels of iodine. Mean and standard deviation of the salt iodine content were 24.7 and 13.7, respectively. According to the results, the iodine content of samples showed significant differences with international standards (40 ppm), and this highlights the necessity of stricter monitoring of the salt production.

Assessment of Households’ Food Insecurity through use of a USDA Questionnaire

The objective of this study was to measure the extent of food insecurity, and identify key socio-economic factors associated with this condition among households in the Alborz Province, Iran. Survey data was collected from a random sample of 166 urban and peri-urban households using the Household Food Security Survey Module of the U.S. Department of Agriculture [1], translated and adapted to the local context. A context-specific categorization of household Food Security status was applied to distinguish the various levels of severity with which the phenomenon of food insecurity may be experienced by Iranian households. Results showed that more than half of the sample population suffers from food insecurity. Food insecurity was found to be significantly associated with lower education and income levels. Findings also showed that food insecurity is common among households that have lived in Karaj suburbs for more than 20 years. Food insecurity is a multi-dimensional phenomenon, and remains a cause of concern for vulnerable households in Iran. This study confirms that unemployment, low income, and lack of education may expose families to the risk of food insecurity, thus intensifying poverty-related problems.

Self-Medication and Contributing Factors: A Questionnaire Survey Among Iranian Households

Background: Self-medication is a serious danger in every health sector which potentially brings harmful side effects for the society. The aim of this research was to investigate self-medication and its contributing factors among residents of Yazd province in Iran in 2014. Methods: A descriptive, cross sectional study was conducted in 2014 using a self-constructed questionnaire. A total of 580 families living in Yazd in the time period of study were contributed to fill out the questions organized in two sections of demographic and self-medication factors. Data were analyzed by SPSS software version 16 through appropriate descriptive and analytical statistical tests. Results: Self-medication was reported in 53.4% of the cases. The most frequent self-prescribed medications were related to pain killer drugs (26.6%). There was a significant statistical relation between self-medication and households’ age, occupation and income, level of parents’ education, number of children and place of residence. Among different reasons for self-medication the most important one was reported to be accessibility (3.44+1.3). Conclusion: Due to the considerable prevalence of self-medication and its harmful effects on every society, such an issue should be appropriately controlled through legal regulations particularly in the area of selling dangerous drugs. Furthermore, provision of proper information and warning the population about harmful side effects can be helpful in this regard.

Epidemiology of illicit drug use disorders in Iran: prevalence, correlates, comorbidity and service utilization results from the Iranian Mental Health Survey.

Drug abuse is a significant social and public health problem in Iran. The present study aimed to provide prevalence estimates and information on correlates of illicit drug use disorder and opioid dependence, as well as service use for these disorders in Iran. This report is based on the Iranian household Mental Health Survey (IranMHS) conducted in 2011. A three-stage probability sampling was employed. Face-to-face interviews by trained psychologists were carried out with a nationally representative sample of 7841 individuals (3366 men and 4475 women) aged 15-64 years. The Composite International Diagnostic Interview and questionnaires for socio-demographic correlates and service use. The prevalence of 12-month use disorders for any illicit drug according to DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria were 2.09% [95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.70-2.47%] and 2.44% (95% CI = 2.03-2.85%), respectively. Opioid use disorders, and opium in particular, were the most common use disorder. The odds of drug use disorders were greater in men than in women, in previously married participants than in currently or never married participants, and in participants with lower socio-economic status than in those with higher socio-economic status (all P-values <0.05). Approximately half of those with drug use disorders and 40% with opioid dependence had a 12-month unmet need for treatment. Self-help groups were the most common type of service used, followed by obtaining medication from pharmacies directly and outpatient treatment services. Opioid use disorders are the most common type of drug use disorders in Iran, setting Iran apart from many other countries. Patterns of service use suggest a large unmet need for drug use disorder treatment in Iran.

Analysis of equality in Iranian household healthcare payments during Iran's fourth development program.

IntroductionToday, the provision of healthcare should be efficient and equitable to achieve the health system’s goals. The aim of this study was to survey equality in healthcare expenditures and its effects on income redistribution.MethodsThis study was a descriptive-analysis, cross-sectional study that was conducted with data obtained from the Statistical Center of Iran (SCI) during 2006 and 2011. The source population and study population were the urban and rural residents of Iran and their households’ income and expenditures on health. The analysis was based on annually aggregated data from all provinces relative to their share of the total population. The data were collected using a pre-tested checklist consisting of two sections. The first section was used to retrieve data about total gross non-food expenditures of households. The second section retrieved out-of-pocket payments for healthcare. The data that were collected were analyzed using a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. The Kakwani index was used to measure the extent of the deviation from equity. The redistributive effect of healthcare costs was considered as the impact of healthcare payments on households’ income distribution.ResultsThe overall Kakwani index during the fourth development program for urban households was progressive (OKI = 0.013), but it was regressive for rural households (OKI = −0.012). Healthcare payments had a negative effect on income redistribution in urban areas during the entire period of the study, and they had a positive effect in rural areas, except for the years 2010 and 2011, for which the effects were negative and non-existent, respectively.ConclusionBy regarding the regressive Kakwani index and the negative effect of healthcare expenditures on income redistribution in some years, the government can use health grants, such as increasing health facilities and supplementary insurance, to increase the ability of households to deal with the cost of developing a remedy and reducing health inequalities.

Inequality in Under-Five Mortality in Iran: A National and Subnational Survey Data Analysis

&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BACKGROUND: &lt;/strong&gt;Despite substantial progress in the national average of under-five mortality rate in Iran, distribution of under-five mortality across different socioeconomic groups is unknown. This study measured socioeconomic inequality in under-five mortality in Iran and across its provinces.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;METHOD: &lt;/strong&gt;Using data from provincially representative Multiple Indicator Demographic and Health Survey, conducted in Iran in 2010, we developed an accurate principal component analysis model to construct an indicator of socioeconomic status of Iranian households. Under-five mortality rates at national and subnational level were estimated using full birth history. The indicator then was used to measure inequality in under-five mortality using Wagstaff normalised concentration index (WCI) at national and subnational levels. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;RESULTS: &lt;/strong&gt;Estimates of Wagstaff normalised concentration indices showed a pro-rich inequality in under-five mortality at national and subnational levels. The concentration index of under-five mortality in Iran was -0.197. Moreover, the consistent negative values of the concentration indices indicated that under-five mortality inequality disfavored the worst-off in all provinces. However, the inequality varied among provinces and ranged from -0.013 to -0.487. At national level there was a descending trend in the under-five mortality rate as one moves higher up in the socioeconomic quintiles.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;CONCLUSIONS: &lt;/strong&gt;This study suggests that further reduction in under-five mortality not only requires addressing the national average but also needs considering inequality in under-five mortality. Therefore, child health policy requires looking beyond the average, putting equality and average together at both national and sub national levels.&lt;/p&gt;

Consumption Smoothing and Borrowing Constraints: Evidence from Household Surveys of Iran

We use Iranian Household Expenditure and Income Survey, to analyze the dynamics of consumption of the households. We observe evidence of excess sensitivity in a cohort pseudo panel of Iranian households. Excess sensitivity, however, is absent for government employees who have better access to finance due to the structure of labor market and banking system in Iran. Our results support the idea that borrowing constraints is the main cause for evidence of excess sensitivity. This indicates that actual consumption prole is sub-optimal and hence deepening financial access will decrease the welfare loss of this sub-optimality. In the paper, we have also provided estimates of elasticity of inter-temporal substitution for the Iranian households for the first time, and they are consistent with those of other developing countries.

Vitamin D Status and Risk of Breast Cancer in Iranian Women: A Case–Control Study

Objective: Considering the rising incidence of breast cancer and high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Iran, this case–control study aimed to investigate the relationship between serum concentration and intake of vitamin D and risk of breast cancer.Methods: A total of 135 incident breast cancer cases at the Cancer Research Center of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences were matched with 135 controls by age and menopausal status. A validated and reliable 168-item food frequency questionnaire was completed by participant interviews. To determine the vitamin D content of foods we used the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) nutrient database. To analyze the food frequency questionnaires we used the data collected in the Iranian Household Food Pattern Study, conducted by the National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute and the Iranian Ministry of Agriculture. Five-milliliter blood samples were collected to measure serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method.Results: Women in the fourth quartile of serum 25(OH)D level had 3 times lower risk of developing breast cancer compared to those in the first quartile. In the adjusted model the inverse relationship remained significant (odds ratio [OR] = 0.269; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.122–0.593). In the stratified model by menopausal status the inverse association was only seen in premenopausal women (OR = 0.25; 95% CI, 0.094–0.687).Dietary intake of vitamin D was inversely associated with risk of breast cancer (OR fourth quartile [Q4] vs first quartile [Q1] = 0.39; 95% CI, 0.196–0.784; p = 0.008). After adjusting for the confounding factors, this inverse association remained significant.Conclusion: Results from this case–control study support the protective effect of higher serum concentration of 25(OH)D against breast cancer. Moreover, dietary but not total intake of vitamin D was associated with decreased risk of breast cancer.

Iranian household values and perception with respect to housing attributes

Designing houses matching user's values is essential for delivering quality housing. However, designer-user gap and difficulties in identifying Iranian household values have resulted in developing inappropriate houses. Therefore, this study has been set to investigate user perceptions of value creators in dwelling space design and to clarify user's perceptual orientation toward housing attributes. Data were gathered from the occupants of mass-produced apartments built in Bushehr, Iran through two sequential complementary stages. Examining 15 occupants using MEC model and soft laddering were followed by distributing 150 hard laddering questionnaire surveys. Based on our findings, value creators encompass psychological and functional aspects. Value creators included provision of beautiful environment. Furthermore, designing efficient building which also provides adequate space was vital. Providing occupant comfort and privacy and at the same time enhancing their intimacy and integrity were also seen as crucial. The desired aspects of housing environment also involved a pleasant environment which improves human vitality. Providing designers with occupants' mental process and perception results in enhancing the appropriateness of dwelling space design.

Cross-domain feature selection and coding for household energy behavior

Household energy behavior is a key factor that dictates energy consumption, efficiency and conservation. In the past, household energy behavior was typically unknown because conventional meters only recorded the total amount of energy consumed for a household over a significant period of time. The rollout of smart meters enabled real-time household energy consumption to be recorded and analyzed. This paper uses smart meter readings from more than 5000 Irish households to identify energy behavior indicators through a cross-domain feature selection and coding approach. The idea is to extract and connect customers' features from energy domain and demography domain, i.e., smart metering data and household information. Smart metering data are characterized by typical energy spectral patterns, whereas household information is encoded as the energy behavior indicator. The results show that employment status and internet usage are highly correlated with household energy behavior in Ireland because employment status and internet usage have an important effect on lifestyle, including when to work, play, and rest, and hence yield a difference in electricity use style. The proposed approach offers a simple, transparent and effective alternative to a challenging cross-domain matching problem with massive smart metering data and energy behavior indicators.

Household gambling expenditures and the Irish recession

This article examines the determinants of household gambling expenditures in Ireland and the effects of the recession on these expenditures using a large micro data-set, the Irish Household Budget Survey (HBS). Two gambling expenditures are examined, bookmaker tote betting and spending on the national lottery. Households with an older and a less educated head of household participate in and spend more on both forms of gambling while the presence of children in the households tends to reduce participation and spending in gambling. There is also evidence to suggest that households with an unemployed head of household have a higher likelihood of participation in gambling. The recession has affected the two forms of gambling in different ways. Lottery expenditures appear resilient to the effects of the recession. This is demonstrated in the estimated expenditure elasticities in particular. Bookmaker/tote expenditures have changed from a necessity to a luxury good, while lottery expenditures have increased in their necessity status. This can be explained by the fact that playing the lottery requires less time, knowledge and risk and has potentially greater benefits attached to it in comparison to bookmaker/tote betting. During a recession these factors become much more prevalent.

Assessing the Distribution of Household Financial Contribution to Health System: A Case Study of Iran.

Throughout the world, financing the healthcare system through households' financial contribution is a challenging issue in evaluating performance of healthcare systems. The purpose of this paper is illustrating the consequences of Iranian household to health system financial contribution in terms of burden and incomes approaches. The Data derived from an annual survey by Statistics Center of Iran (SCI) on expenditure-income of 36,551 households in 2012 was used to analyze countrywide distribution indicators of households' medical expenses by measuring indices of Income and burden approaches based on World Health Organization (WHO) and World Bank recommended methodologies. The fairness in financial contribution index was 0.85 and 0.82, and the income redistributive effect index was 0.54 and 0.3 in urban and rural areas, respectively. The fairness in financial contribution index was found 0.84 and 0.83 and the income redistributive effect index was 0.48 and 0.25 for households with and without medical insurance, respectively.The percentages of household with catastrophic health payments were 2.4% and 4% and the change in the number of household falling below the poverty line due to health system payments was 0.4% and 2% in urban and rural areas, respectively. The percentages of household with catastrophic health payments were 2.8% and 3% and the change in the number of household falling below the poverty line due to health system payments was 0.008 and 0.011 for households with and without medical insurance, respectively. Distribution indicators of medical expenses were more favorable in urban areas compared to rural areas and Medical insurance has declined impoverishment risks and number of people suffered due to catastrophic health expenditure. In addition, the result showed that there are different approaches for analyzing the distribution of out of pocket payments which used to complement each other in respect of formulation and development policy making in health system.

Money, Comfort or Environment? Priorities and Determinants of Energy Efficiency Investments in Irish Households

Energy efficiency is an effective strategy to reduce household energy consumption. Investments in energy efficiency measures (EEMs) result in reduced energy bills and increased comfort for households, while also contributing to national environmental targets. This article examines an energy efficiency scheme in Ireland and investigates the factors that determine investments in energy efficiency measures and the motivations of Irish households to participate in energy saving programs and adopt EEMs. The paper investigates three key research questions: the determination of investments in EEMs, with special focus on motivations and their relative importance; the consistency of motivations over the course of the decision-making process; and the consistency of determinants and motivations for investments in EEMs across different measures. The paper studies the implementation of seven energy efficiency measures in residential houses throughout Ireland. Results indicate that the decision to ultimately apply and invest in EEMs is mainly driven by monetary or economic factors such as gains in energy savings and the private cost of the measures. Comfort gains are found to be a secondary factor and environmental benefits of EEMs are found to be of little concern when making investment decisions. Finally, we suggest focusing on providing information about the benefits of the EEMs on energy savings and improvements in comfort in order to increase the adoption of EEMs by households in Ireland.

Associations Between Socio-Environmental Determinants and the Risk of Pulmonary Tuberculosis in Guilan, Iran

Background: Certain social determinants may influence host susceptibility to tuberculosis (TB) infections, and increase the risk of developing the disease. Objectives: The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of several host and environmental factors on the risk of TB in northern Iranian households. Patients and Methods: This case-control study was conducted for one year between 2010 and 2011 in the Guilan province in Iran. Eighty-seven confirmed TB positive cases, based on convenience sampling, were included in this study. A patient positive for TB was confirmed by a positive sputum smear, chest X-ray, and clinical manifestations as diagnosed by a physician. The data were collected using observational methods, and were analyzed by SPSS software. Results: The average mean age of the TB cases was 51 ± 22 years old, and 40.2% (35/87) of the TB cases were male and 59.8% (52/87) were female. The majority of TB cases were from rural areas (71.3%, 62/87), while 28.7% (25/87) were from urban areas. Significant differences (P < 0.001) were observed between the geographical conditions and distribution of the disease. The room density of the individuals was significantly different (2.9 ± 1.2 vs. 2.2 ± 1.9, P < 0.002) among the TB cases and control group, respectively. A statistical difference was observed between the groups in terms of the building materials (P < 0.05), while significantly inadequate UV irradiation was seen in the houses of the TB patients, compared to the control group (82.8% vs. 14.9%, P < 0.001). The hygiene of the houses seemed to be a significant risk factor (P < 0.001) for TB infection. Conclusions: The results suggest that in the studied region several host and environmental factors were associated with higher risks of TB infection.

An application of the double hurdle model to petrol and diesel household expenditures in Ireland

The objective of this study is to examine the determinants of household petrol and diesel expenditures using a large micro data set of Irish households. This research is timely given the switch in purchases from petrol cars to diesel cars arising out of changes in how vehicle registration tax and motor tax rates are calculated. The study finds that households living in urban areas, households that spend money on public transport and households that do not possess a car will spend less on both petrol and diesel. In contrast, households in possession of higher number of cars, households with more occupants working and households with higher levels of household spending will spend more on petrol and diesel. The econometric methodology employed takes into account the fact that the dependent variable contains zero expenditures. Such an approach has never previously been applied to analyse Irish household transport use and provides interesting insights. In particular the effect that the explanatory variables have on participation in the market is quite different for petrol and diesel. For example, the model predicts a much larger increase in the probability that households will spend in the diesel market relative to the petrol market as income increases. The results have implications for the design of tax policy in the transport sector as the Irish economy recovers and average household income increases.

Price Expectations, Distressed Mortgage Markets and the Housing Wealth Effect

Using a unique combination of regulatory and survey microdata, we examine the importance of the life cycle theory of consumption in estimating housing wealth effects for the Irish mortgage market. Since the recent financial crisis, this market has experienced substantial house price declines and negative equity. Thus, house price expectations are likely to be important in influencing housing wealth effects. We find a positive correlation between consumption and changes in housing wealth among our sample of mortgaged Irish households. Furthermore, we find that this positive association only exists when housing wealth changes are perceived to be of a permanent nature.

Nutritional knowledge, attitude and practice toward micronutrients among Iranian households: the NUTRI-KAP survey.

BackgroundHealthy diet for maintaining a healthy weight and prevention of chronic disease is vital at all stages of life. The purpose of this study was to determine the nutritional knowledge, attitude, and practice among urban and rural households in Iran.MethodsIn this nation-wide study, 14,136 subjects were selected using a multistage cluster sampling method from 31 provinces of Iran. This study was on the households in rural and urban areas in Iran. Participants of this study were mothers or other members who were responsible for preparing meals for the whole family. Data were gathered by the questionnaire and the interview with the qualified person in each family.ResultsFrequency of knowledge about food source of calcium was between 11.6 and 64.7 %. Knowing of food source of zinc was about 12.8–16.7 %. Knowledge about of meat as source of iron was 50.9 and 46.5 % in regions of urban and rural, respectively. Positive attitude about preferring to use the full-fat dairy was about 25.1 % and negative attitude about this issue was 71.4 %; the positive attitude was slightly lower in rural areas than in urban areas. Respectively, frequency of using red meat in urban households was 10.8, 73.7, and 15.5 % as daily, weekly and rarely. Frequency of using daily of milk, yogurt and cheese was significantly lower in rural than in urban household.ConclusionThis national study indicates that in some cases there is a gap between knowledge and behavior among household of Iranian population.

The Estimation of Optimal Elecetricity Consumption in Iranian Household Sector by Comparisionn Methods

The Estimation of Optimal Elecetricity Consumption in Iranian Household Sector by Comparisionn Methods

An examination of the determinants of Irish household sports expenditures and the effects of the economic recession

ABSTRACTResearch question: This study examines the determinants of four household sport expenditure items. The primary objective is to examine the effects of the recent economic recession in Ireland on these expenditures. This study is the first to analyse Irish household sport expenditure data and the first to study the effects of the economic recession on these items.Research methods: Data from the 2004/2005 and 2009/2010 Irish Household Budget Surveys, a period which covers the economic recession in Ireland, are employed. A Tobit model is estimated as each of the four sports expenditures has a large amount of zero expenditures.Results and findings: The social and economic characteristics of Irish households affect each sports item in differing ways. The presence of children of a particular age appears to be a strong determinant of spending on categories of sports which involve more physical activity (sport participation and leisure fees). Other categories of sports are influenced more by income (attendance at sporting events) and age and social status (club subscriptions). For some categories of sport spending there is a strong link with how the economy is performing, whereas for others household characteristics play just as important a role.Implications: This research has shown that sport is a multi-faceted product. Its determinants and how it is affected by economic downturns depends on the type of expenditure examined. For spending on certain categories the recession has had a clear negative effect, whereas for others it has been neutral. These are important considerations for sports managers and policy-makers when devising their strategies.