Household Water Research Articles

Case-area targeted interventions and free chlorine residual in household drinking water: An observational cohort study during a cholera outbreak in Northeast Nigeria.

Cholera outbreaks are surging worldwide. Growing research supports case-area targeted interventions (CATIs), whereby teams provide a package of interventions to case and neighboring households, as an effective strategy in cholera outbreak control, particularly in humanitarian settings. While research exists on individual CATI interventions, research gaps exist on outcomes of integrated interventions during CATI responses. We conducted a prospective observational cohort study on CATIs during the 2021 cholera outbreak in Northeast Nigeria. During CATI response in Borno, Adamawa, and Yobe, research enumerators accompanied CATI teams to households and observed interventions (including provision of soap, Aquatabs, educational materials, and jerrycans; latrine and bedding disinfection; and hygiene promotion) and collected data on demographics, existing household water, sanitation, and hygiene, and household water free chlorine residual (FCR). Enumerators returned to households 10-14 days later to conduct follow-up surveys. We tested differences in reported delivery and receipt of interventions, and household drinking water FCR concentrations before and after CATIs. We also analyzed the associated relationship between CATI and environmental factors and odds of FCR <0.2 mg/L using quasi-Poisson multivariate logistic regression models with generalized estimating equations (GEE). We found household drinking water FCR significantly increased (p<0.001) post-CATI in Adamawa state. Self-reported receipt of Aquatabs and handwashing station availability were significantly associated with reduced odds of FCR <0.2 mg/L at follow-up. Self-reported receipt of hygiene promotion lacked significant associations with FCR in both Adamawa and Borno. These associations varied by type of water source. These findings suggest that CATIs improved household drinking water FCR, a key protective measure against cholera, in Northeast Nigeria. Our research highlights factors associated with FCR concentrations <0.2 mg/L post-CATI in Adamawa and Borno, offering valuable insights for response planning, and overall supports the continued use of CATIs in humanitarian settings.

Analyzing the Efficacy of Water Treatment Disinfectants as Vector Control: The Larvicidal Effects of Silver Nitrate, Copper Sulfate Pentahydrate, and Sodium Hypochlorite on Juvenile Aedes Aegypti

For communities without access to uninterrupted, piped water, household water storage (HWS) practices can lead to adverse public health outcomes caused by water degradation and mosquito proliferation. With over 700,000 deaths caused by vector-borne diseases annually, the objective of this study was to determine whether water disinfectants, at concentrations deemed safe for human consumption and beneficial for water treatment, are effective in reducing the emergence of adult mosquitoes that transmit disease. Laboratory bioassays, designed to resemble the context of treating HWS containers, were conducted to assess the larvicidal effects of chemicals at concentrations below regulatory limits for drinking water: silver (20, 40, 80 μg/L Ag), copper (300, 600, 1200 μg/L Cu), and chlorine (500, 1000, 2000 ug/L free chlorine). The water disinfectants demonstrated the ability to significantly reduce the population of juvenile Ae. aegypti. Sodium hypochlorite was found to be the most effective in decreasing the survival rate of late first instar larvae, while silver nitrate exhibited the highest effectiveness in inhibiting the emergence of late third instar larvae. Ultimately, this study highlights the potential of an integrated approach to Water, Sanitation, and Health (WASH) solutions with vector control management.

Associations between water exposure and the development of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a matched case-control study

Objective Previous studies have hinted at an association between water exposure and the development of ALS. However, proximity measures to these water sources have been limited to questionnaires or large buffers due to a lack of fine geospatial measures. They also do not distinguish the various classes of hydrographic features. Thus, we created a robust database to investigate the association between proximity to water bodies at place of residence and the development of ALS. Methods A matched (sex and year of birth) case-control study was conducted in New Brunswick, Canada from January 2003 to February 2021. Study population included 304 ALS patients and 1207 controls with their historical postal codes linked to spatial proximity datasets and air pollution index indicators (proxy measures for contamination by run-off). Results Odds of ALS were not significantly associated with proximity to water bodies, even within a 250 m buffer from place of residence (Oceans: 1.10, 0.60–2.00 [95% CI], Reservoirs/Ponds/Lakes: 1.24, 0.47–3.30 [95% CI]). As for interaction models investigating proximity to potentially contaminated water bodies, none of the final fitted models observed an association between proximity to water bodies with indicators of potential run-off sources and the development of ALS. Conclusions No significant association between proximity to water bodies at place of residence and the development of ALS were observed in the current study. Future studies should consider taking direct measurements of water quality or utilize geomaps of spraying activities and cyanobacteria blooms alongside proximity measures. Household water quality is another avenue to explore, particularly well water use.

Environmental Issues in Global Pediatric Health: Policy Statement.

Pediatricians and pediatric trainees in North America are increasingly involved in caring for children and adolescents in or from low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). In many LMICs, hazardous environmental exposures-notably outdoor and household air pollution, water pollution, lead, pesticides, and other manufactured chemicals-are highly prevalent and account for twice the proportion of disease and deaths among young children as in North America. Climate change will likely worsen these exposures. It is important that pediatricians and other pediatric health professionals from high-income countries who work in LMICs be aware of the disproportionately severe impacts of toxic environmental hazards, become knowledgeable about the major local/regional environmental threats, and consider environmental factors in their differential diagnoses. Likewise, pediatricians in high-income countries who care for patients who have emigrated from LMICs need to be aware that these children may be at elevated risk of toxic environmental diseases from past exposures to toxic environmental hazards in their countries of origin as well as ongoing exposures in products imported from their home countries, including traditional foods, medications, and cosmetics. Because diseases of toxic environmental origin seldom have unique physical signatures, pediatricians can utilize the environmental screening history, supplemented by laboratory testing, as a diagnostic tool. To prepare pediatricians to care for children in and from LMICs, pediatric organizations could increase the amount of environmental health and climate change content offered in continuing medical education (CME) credits, maintenance of certification (MOC) credits, and certification and recertification examinations. Broadly, it is important that governments and international agencies increase resources directed to pollution prevention, strengthen the environmental health workforce, and expand public health infrastructure in all countries.

Quantitative Analysis of Charging For the Provision of Household Waste Management From the Perspective of Water Consumption: Case Study in A Medium-Sized Municipality

Objective: This study aims to quantitatively assess the relationship between household solid waste generation and water consumption in a medium-sized municipality, as well as to analyze the financial self-sufficiency of the services. Theoretical Framework: Recent legal frameworks establish guidelines to ensure the sustainability of waste management services, which are still incipient in the country. Indirect charging, based on water consumption, is suggested as an effective measure, encouraging recovery and promoting equity among users. Method: The relationship between water consumption and household solid waste generation in the municipality was assessed, along with the calculation of the tariff for the waste management service, using the calculation methodology proposed by the National Water and Sanitation Agency (ANA)]. Results and Discussion: The study showed a generation of 3.5 kg of waste collected per cubic meter of water consumed in the municipality, and a significant positive linear correlation (95% confidence) between these two parameters. The tariff calculation determined a financial self-sufficiency of approximately 100%. Research Implications: It was found that revenue based on water consumption could cover the costs of waste management services, ensuring the economic and financial sustainability of the services for the municipality in question. Originality/Value: The case study supports the proposed indirect charging methodology, encouraging the adoption of the proposed model as a reference for medium-sized municipalities.

When coping strategies become the norm: household water insecurity in the Dominican Republic

When coping strategies become the norm: household water insecurity in the Dominican Republic

Water insecurity is associated with sugar-sweetened beverage consumption in a small-scale population in Lowland Bolivia experiencing lifestyle changes.

Emerging evidence indicates water insecurity (WI) is detrimental to nutritional outcomes and dietary choices. This study measured WI experiences alongside market and traditional sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption in a small-scale society experiencing early stages of the nutrition transition (i.e., lifestyle and dietary changes away from traditional foods) to test how they are associated. The twelve-item Household Water Insecurity Experiences (HWISE) Scale was implemented along with a cross-sectional retrospective survey of beverage intake and sociodemographics across five communities at varying distance to a market town. Tsimane' forager-horticulturalist adults aged ≥16 years (n=455; 47% women) in Lowland Bolivia, April-May, 2019. Sugar-sweetened beverage and traditional beverage consumption. Multivariate logistic and poisson regressions adjusting for possible confounding variables, including age, gender, income, household water needs, and community residence. Using logistic regressions, each point higher WI (HWISE) score was associated with 23% (95% CI: 1.01-1.50; P=0.035) and 27% (95% CI: 1.06-1.52; P=0.008) higher odds of consuming an SSB in the past week for men and women, respectively. For men, each point higher HWISE score was associated with 13% (95% CI: 1.10-1.16; P<0.001) higher odds of drinking chicha fuerte (a traditional, homemade fermented beverage with antibacterial properties) and 16% (95% CI: 1.02-1.32; P=0.022) higher odds of consuming liquor. SSB consumption was highest in the closest communities to the market town and declined significantly with distance; while traditional beverages such as chicha dulce (a sugar-sweetened, unfermented homemade chicha) were lowest in the close communities and increased with distance to the market town. Among Tsimane' adults living in the Bolivian Amazon experiencing the nutrition transition, WI was associated with greater SSB intake. Distance to the main market town shaped access and preferences as it was associated with SSB and traditional beverage consumption.

Measuring Food and Water Security in an Aboriginal Community in Regional Australia.

To measure current levels and experiences of food and water security in Walgett to guide a community-led program and to provide a baseline measure. A community-led cross-sectional survey conducted in April 2022 by trained local researchers. Walgett, a regional town in NSW, Australia. A total of 251 Aboriginal adults. Food and water security levels and experiences were measured using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and Household Water InSecurity Experiences (HWISE) Scale. The relationship between food and water insecurity was determined through linear regression analysis. Almost half of the respondents experienced food insecurity (46%) or water insecurity (44%) in the last 12 months. Most participants attributed food insecurity to difficulties with food affordability (71%) and availability (63%). More than four in five participants reported relying on purchased or donated bottled water due to main water source interruption (83%) or quality concerns (86%). Water insecurity was associated with food insecurity; HFIAS score increased by 0.43 points for every point higher on the HWISE scale. This study is the first to measure levels and experiences of food and water security in an Aboriginal community in Australia using validated tools. The results highlight the interconnectedness of food and water insecurity and provide evidence of levels far higher than Australian national level estimates and comparable to low- and middle-income countries. A holistic government response alongside community-led efforts are needed to increasefood and water security to improve health and well-being in remote Aboriginal communities.

Household water security is a mediator of household food security in a nationally representative sample of Mexico.

Explore the relationship between water insecurity and food security and their covariates in Mexican households. A cross-sectional study with nationally representative data from the National Health and Nutrition Survey-Continuous 2021 (in Spanish, ENSANUT-Continua 2021), collected data from 12,619 households. Water insecurity was measured using the Household Water Insecurity Experiences (HWISE) Scale in Spanish and adapted to the Mexican context. Food security was measured using the Latin American and Caribbean Food Security Scale (ELCSA). A generalized path model was used to produce two simultaneous logistical regression equations--of water insecurity (WI, HWISE ≥12) and moderate-to-severe food insecurity (FI)-to understand key covariates as well as the contribution of WI to FI. The head of the household, an adult of >18 years of age, consented to participate in the survey. Households experiencing WI were more likely to experience moderate to severe FI (OR=2.35; 95%CI: 2.02-2.72). The odds of WI were lower in households with medium (OR=0.74; 95%CI: 0.61-0.9) to high (OR=0.45; 95%CI: 0.37-0.55) asset scores. Water insecurity also depended on the region of Mexico. FI is more prevalent in Indigenous people (OR=1.29; 95%CI: 1.05-1.59) and rural households (OR=0.42; 95%CI: 1.16-1.73). Notably, wealth and household size did not contribute directly to FI but did so indirectly through the mediating factor of WI. Our study shows that there are structural factors that form part of the varied determinants of water insecurity, which in turn is closely linked to food insecurity.

Analysis of Household Water Demand and Supply Challenges in Mubi Metropolis, Adamawa State-Nigeria: A Search for a Sustainable Water Security Solution

This study assesses the water demand and supply situation in Mubi Metropolis, Adamawa State, Nigeria, with a focus on identifying sustainable water security solutions. The study deployed the use of mixed method in order to achieve its specific objectives. Findings reveal a moderate willingness to pay (WTP) for improved water services, averaging ₦15,650 (Math input error 14.19) and reaching up to ₦48,000 ($28.24), constitutes 9.42% of income—far exceeding the WHO benchmark of 3-5% and imposing significant financial strain, particularly on low-income households. Per capita water consumption stands at 28.93 liters, far below the WHO-recommended 100 liters, highlighting a severe deficit of 71.07 liters per person. Income disparity and high poverty levels exacerbate water insecurity, while dissatisfaction with water quality persists, as most households rely on costly and inconsistent private boreholes (mai-ruwa) for supply. Key drivers of water demand challenges include population growth, seasonal variability, socio-economic activities, and the presence of institutions, compounded by weak policy enforcement and the effects of conflict. To address these challenges, the study recommends investment in public water infrastructure, income-based pricing, cross-subsidization for low-income households, and community-based water schemes. Additionally, improving water quality through treatment plants, fostering public-private partnerships, and strengthening policy enforcement are crucial. Enhancing resilience to seasonal variability and implementing conflict-sensitive interventions are also vital.

Exploring Household Water Conservation Practices: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

Exploring Household Water Conservation Practices: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

Effects of Temperature, pH, and Salinity on Pseudomonas Species from Household Water Supplies and their Multidrug Resistance Profiles

Effects of Temperature, pH, and Salinity on Pseudomonas Species from Household Water Supplies and their Multidrug Resistance Profiles

Utilizing the Susceptible Infectious Susceptible (sis) Model to Evaluate the Risk for Waterborne Parasites to Spread through Household Water Sources in Bamenda, Cameroon

This research presents a distributed continuous-time epidemic model, called a SUSCEPTIBLE INFECTIOUS SUSCEPTIBLE- SIS model to denote a waterborne disease spreading over a network of different domestic waters sources such as tap water, well water and spring water in the understanding of infectious pathogens in the Municipality of Bamenda. It involves multiple groups of individuals sharing a water source which comprises the population in the communities or quarter of Upstation mile 1, Nkwen, Mankon and Nsongwa in and around this urban area. A sufficient condition is obtained for the healthy state, at which all individuals are not infected and the water is not contaminated, to be globally asymptotically stable. The effects of the shared water source on the disease spreading were analyzed through the comparison of the basic reproduction number with the networked SIS model without water and demonstrated via simulations. It was realized that human activities and generally anthropogenic influences contaminate these water sources making individuals of this localities to become susceptible to waterborne infections. The characterization and identification of intestinal parasites reveal that, those who consume these contaminated water were infected and these infected individuals intend re-contaminate the environment including water bodies and or food thereby by making the population and uninfected individuals susceptible to waterborne diseases in the community.

Values, Beliefs, and Norms: A Theoretical Approach to Understanding Household Water Insecurity Coping Strategies

Water insecurity is an ongoing global challenge for households. Many families, especially those in regions experiencing water scarcity, employ different coping methods to alleviate its consequences. However, the strategies often utilized by displaced communities remain largely unexplored. Moreover, there is a lack of analysis on how values, beliefs, and social norms (VBN) shape household decisions regarding these methods. This qualitative study included in-depth interviews with 65 individuals impacted by the Thwake Dam construction in Makueni County, Kenya. The study utilized the VBN theory to analyze individual and household decisions by examining various coping strategies related to water insecurity. Our research shows that displaced communities employ different strategies to alleviate the negative impacts of water insecurity. However, the effectiveness of these strategies largely hinges on households’ capacity to store water. Personal values, beliefs, and norms—such as religious and cultural traditions—drive individuals’ reactions to diverse water circumstances, impacting their coping mechanisms. Household coping strategies for water insecurity differ significantly; however, water storage plays a crucial role in influencing other coping techniques among displaced communities. The VBN theoretical framework enhances our understanding of how families deal with water insecurity and use their water resources, illuminating individuals’ daily water-related experiences.

Assessing the factors affecting the use of chlorine dispensers for household water treatment in rural Kenya, Malawi, and Uganda

ABSTRACT Although chlorination is widely accepted as a safe and cost-effective water treatment method, its adoption by the rural populations remains low. This leaves about 26% of the world's population – including 70% in Sub-Saharan Africa – with a lack of access to safely managed drinking water and exposure to hazards of drinking unsafe water. This work used data collected in a repeated cross-sectional study conducted between 2021 and 2022 in Kenya, Uganda, and Malawi to assess factors that influence a community's adoption of chlorine to treat water. The results indicate that households that observed good water storage and handling practices, had knowledge on the benefits of chlorine, understood the correct procedure of using chlorine dispensers, received promotional messages, and used functional chlorine dispensers were more likely to have chlorine residual in their drinking water. Conversely, households where children collected the drinking water were less likely to have chlorine residual in their drinking water. Community promoters who themselves used chlorinated water were associated with a higher chlorine adoption by the communities they serve. The study recommends continuous community education on chlorine water treatment; training on water collection, storage, and handling practices; extending water treatment education to children; and ensuring robust chlorine supply chains.

Evaluating basic household characteristics influencing domestic water demand in tropical environments: a comprehensive case study

Understanding household water dynamics is crucial for achieving SDG 6 targets. This study explores the impact of 16 socio-demographic variables on household water demand in a tropical Nigerian community from February 2023 to January 2024, surveying eighty diverse households monthly. Descriptive and inferential statistics were applied to the survey data. Females constituted 85.8%, with 98.0% aged at least 18 and 73.6% having secondary education. Factorability of the dataset was confirmed (KMO = 63.4, p < 0.005). Analysis identified seven key variables, explaining 72.03% of observed variance: household size, water source reliability, time cost of obtaining water, water storage strategy, consumptive water use, monthly income, and water source management type. Further scrutiny revealed two variable groups, contributing 42.3% (VAR 1 and VAR 2) and 51.4% (VAR 3, 4, 5, and 6) of total absolute variance, respectively. This analysis is vital for effective household water planning and management, especially in resource-limited regions. Extracted variables warrant attention from industry stakeholders, with subsequent investigations revealing robust relationships (55.5–99.1%) among variables. This understanding is pivotal for institutionalizing policies and strategic decision-making in household water supply planning and management. It offers comprehensive insights for aligning practices with SDG 6 goals, ensuring sustainable and equitable access to water resources.

Multiancestry Genome-Wide Association Study of Early Childhood Caries.

Early childhood caries (ECC) is the most common noncommunicable childhood disease-an important health problem with known environmental and social/behavioral influences lacking consensus genetic risk loci. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted a genome-wide association study of ECC in a multiancestry population of U.S. preschool-age children (N = 6,103) ages 3 to 5 y participating in a community-based epidemiologic study of early childhood oral health. Calibrated examiners used International Caries Detection and Assessment System criteria to measure ECC; the primary trait was the number of primary tooth surfaces with caries experience (i.e., dmfs index). We estimated heritability and concordance rates and conducted genome-wide association analyses to estimate overall genetic effects as well as stratified by sex, household water fluoride, and dietary sugar and leveraged combined gene/gene-environment effects using 2-degree-of-freedom joint tests. Common genetic variants explained 24% of ECC phenotypic variance among unrelated individuals, while concordance rates were 0.64 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.42-0.79) among monozygotic twins and 0.44 (95% CI = 0.34-0.53) among first-degree relatives. Across all analyses, we identified 21 novel nonoverlapping genome-wide significant loci (P < 5 × 10-8) and 1 genome-wide significant gene (TAAR6) associated with ECC. The taste receptor activity gene set, with known roles in chemosensing, bacterial recognition, and innate immunity in the oral cavity, was strongly associated with ECC. While no locus remained significant after studywise multiple-testing correction, 3 loci were nominally significant (P < 0.05) and directionally consistent in external cohorts of 285,248 adults (rs1442369, DLGAP1 and rs74606067, RP11-856F16.2) and 18,994 children (rs71327750, SLC41A3). Meanwhile, the strongest marker known to be associated with adult caries (rs1122171, tagging the long noncoding RNA PITX1-AS1) was nominally significant (P = 0.01) and directionally consistent with ECC in our study. Taken together, the results of this study add to the genomics knowledge base for early childhood caries, offer several plausible candidates for future mechanistic studies, and underscore the importance of accounting for sex and pertinent environmental exposures in genetic investigations.

Methodological approaches to hygienic assessment of safe distances when performing agricultural work using unmanned aircraft systems

Introduction. Methods and technologies for assessing and managing risk are becoming the basic mechanisms for ensuring the protection of the health in citizens and the environment from the harmful effects of environmental factors. This is explained by the presence of constant threats associated with the influence of these factors, including the use of modern methods of introducing chemicals during agricultural work. Agricultural unmanned aircraft systems (AUAS) designed to spray pesticides are increasingly being used around the world. The basis for the safe use of pesticides for the population is to minimize the possibility of their spread through the air and settling on the soil outside the treated area, which is ensured by compliance with hygienic requirements for equipment used in agriculture, application regulations, weather conditions during processing, and the size of the sanitary gap between the treated area and settlements, water bodies, etc. The purpose of this study was to substantiate the safe distances from areas of agricultural application of pesticides using AUAS to objects regulated in accordance with sanitary legislation (settlements, sources of household, drinking and cultural water use, etc.). Materials and methods. The demolition formed during the application of pesticides of various purposes using AUAS has been studied. The content of drugs carried away by air currents was monitored by measuring the concentration of the substance in the atmospheric air and deposited on the “blue ribbon” filters placed in Petri dishes outside the processing band. Results. The maximum concentrations of substances in the atmospheric air at all distances from the treatment site were below their hygienic standards for atmospheric air. There is a clear decrease in concentrations in air samples as they move away from the treated area and a nonlinear decrease in concentrations in sedimentation samples with the presence of weak local maxima. Limitations. A small sample of the studied substances, due to the limited time of the study, does not allow unambiguously identifying the patterns of drift formation depending on their physical-chemical properties, in particular volatility, molecular weight, etc. Conclusion. The data obtained indicate to the need to continue research for a reasoned correction or confirmation, proposed based on the results of the tests, of the safe distance (700 m) from the sites treated with pesticides to the facilities normalized in accordance with sanitary legislation.

Exploring behaviour of socio-economic metabolic flows to promote environmentally sustainable consumption patterns in Sri Lankan households

AbstractWhile households depend on various material and energy inflows from outside their boundaries, their behaviour has changed over the years with rapid economic development and urbanisation. Therefore, monitoring these resource inflows and outflows and understanding how they relate to household consumption patterns are crucial to uplifting environmentally sustainable policies and practices. With limited studies available, this study aims to contribute to the household metabolism literature by exploring energy, water, food flows, and related emissions of Sri Lankan households during the past decade. Metabolic flows were quantified by converting household expenditure survey data of 20,000 households into physical quantities. Inputs, outputs, and the metabolic processes were then demonstrated using resource flow diagrams and evaluated using environmental sustainability indicators. Results indicate declining intensities of energy and food consumption and inclining intensities of water consumption and emissions during the past decade. Traced consumption patterns across metabolic flows reveal extensively linear metabolic flows with comparatively pro-environmental patterns in resources extraction. Lack of proper disposal/recycle measures for food waste and wastewater has jeopardized the circularity of metabolic flows, causing irreversible environmental deterioration. Policy implications call for changes in energy mix to reduce dependency on energy imports, promoting energy-efficient appliances and the use of clean energy sources for cooking, reinforcing accountability for groundwater consumption, tackling the disparities in the availability of pipe-borne water, and streamlining of waste management system with efficient source separation and treatment practices.

Hydrogeochemistry, Water Quality, and Health Risk Analysis of Phreatic Groundwater in the Urban Area of Yibin City, Southwestern China

With rapid urbanization, intensified agricultural activities, and industrialization, groundwater resources are increasingly threatened by pollution. Industrial wastewater discharge and the extensive use of agricultural fertilizers in particular, have had substantial impacts on groundwater quality. This study examines 18 groundwater samples collected from the main urban area of Yibin City to assess hydrochemical characteristics, spatial distribution, source attribution, water quality, and human health risks. Statistical analysis reveals significant exceedances in TDS, NO3−, Mn, and As levels in groundwater, with elevated concentrations of B as well. Isotopic analysis identifies atmospheric rainfall as the primary recharge source for groundwater in the area, with water–rock interactions and limestone dissolution playing key roles in shaping its chemical composition. Applying the Entropy-Weighted Water Quality Index (EWQI) for a comprehensive water quality assessment, the study found that 94.44% of groundwater samples were rated as “good”, indicating relatively high overall water quality. Deterministic health risk assessments indicate that 72.22% of the groundwater samples have non-carcinogenic health risks below the threshold of 1, while 66.67% have carcinogenic health risks below 1.00 × 10−4. Monte Carlo simulations produced similar results, reinforcing the reliability of the health risk assessment. Although the study area’s groundwater quality is generally good, a significant human health risk persists, underscoring the need to ensure the safety of drinking and household water for local residents. This study provides a valuable reference for the rational management and remediation of groundwater resources.