Household Water Research Articles

Examining the complex dynamics influencing acute malnutrition in Turkana and Samburu counties: Study protocol.

Acute malnutrition in children under 5 years is persistent in Eastern Africa's arid and semiarid lands. This study aimed to identify the drivers of acute malnutrition in Turkana and Samburu counties, Kenya. This was a population-based longitudinal mixed-methods observational study. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected at Wave 1, but only quantitative data were collected during follow-up. Participants were a representative sample of children and their primary caregivers from households with children under 3 years at Wave 1. Anthropometric measurements of all children under 5 years in the sampled households were taken at Wave 1 (May to July 2021), and one child under 3 years was randomly selected for follow-up about every 4 months over 2 years for six data collection waves. The study also collected data on sociodemographics; child feeding practices and morbidity; household water and food insecurity; shocks; coping strategies, social safety nets and economic safeguards; water, sanitation and hygiene; women's decision-making and food consumption. Qualitative data were collected through community dialogues, focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, photovoice and key informant interviews with mothers and fathers with children under 5 years, community leaders, county officials and staff of nongovernmental organisations. Data collection is complete and analysis is ongoing. The analysis includes thematic analysis of qualitative data and descriptive and multi-variable regression analyses of quantitative data.

CARTOGRAFIA SOCIAL DA INJUSTIÇA AMBIENTAL NA CHAPADA DO APODI, CEARÁ

Chapada do Apodi, in the state of Ceará, is an expansion area for cotton agribusiness, producing environmental injustice against peasant communities. The study reveals the potential of social maps created through participatory mapping to expose environmental injustice caused by agribusiness. The research aims to demonstrate the environmental injustice triggered by the territorialization of agribusiness in the region through social cartography. A qualitative approach, participatory research, and social cartography are the core procedures for the investigation. The results show that it was possible to demonstrate increased deforestation, areas with a "smell of poison," the incorporation of former goat breeding areas, the deactivation of apiaries and bee deaths, the destruction of social technologies, and the possible contamination of storage tanks for household water. Furthermore, it is evident that environmental injustice can be revealed through participatory mapping processes based on social cartography. Keywords: Social cartography; Environmental injustice; Agribusiness; Chapada do Apodi.

The Determinants of Household Water Demand: A Focus on Water, Energy, and Food Prices

The Determinants of Household Water Demand: A Focus on Water, Energy, and Food Prices

Insights into water insecurity in Indigenous communities in Canada: assessing microbial risks and innovative solutions, a multifaceted review.

Canada is considered a freshwater-rich country, despite this, several Indigenous reserves struggle with household water insecurity. In fact, some of these communities have lacked access to safe water for almost 30 years. Water quality in Canadian Indigenous reserves is influenced by several factors including source water quality, drinking water treatments applied, water distribution systems, and water storage tanks when piped water is unavailable. The objective of this multifaceted review is to spot the challenges and consequences of inadequate drinking water systems (DWS) and the available technical and microbiological alternatives to address water sanitation coverage in Indigenous reserves of Canada, North America (also known as Turtle Island). A comprehensive literature review was conducted using national web portals from both federal and provincial governments, as well as academic databases to identify the following topics: The status of water insecurity in Indigenous communities across Canada; Microbiological, chemical, and natural causes contributing to water insecurity; Limitations of applying urban-style drinking water systems in Indigenous reserves in Canada and the management of DWS for Indigenous communities in other high-income countries; and the importance of determining the microbiome inhabiting drinking water systems along with the cutting-edge technology available for its analysis. A total of 169 scientific articles matched the inclusion criteria. The major themes discussed include: The status of water insecurity and water advisories in Canada; the risks of pathogenic microorganisms (i.e., Escherichia coli and total coliforms) and other chemicals (i.e., disinfection by-products) found in water storage tanks; the most common technologies available for water treatment including coagulation, high- and low-pressure membrane filtration procedures, ozone, ion exchange, and biological ion exchange and their limitations when applying them in remote Indigenous communities. Furthermore, we reviewed the benefits and drawbacks that high throughput tools such as metagenomics (the study of genomes of microbial communities), culturomics (a high-efficiency culture approach), and microfluidics devices (microminiaturized instruments) and what they could represent for water monitoring in Indigenous reserves. This multifaceted review demonstrates that water insecurity in Canada is a reflection of the institutional structures of marginalization that persist in the country and other parts of Turtle Island. DWS on Indigenous reserves are in urgent need of upgrades. Source water protection, and drinking water monitoring plus a comprehensive design of culturally adapted, and sustainable water services are required. Collaborative efforts between First Nations authorities and federal, provincial, and territorial governments are imperative to ensure equitable access to safe drinking water in Indigenous reserves.

Ongoing transmission of trachoma in low prevalence districts in Mozambique: results from four cross-sectional enhanced impact surveys, 2022

Mozambique is making progress towards elimination of trachoma as a public health problem, but in some districts trachomatous inflammation—follicular (TF) prevalence remains above the 5% elimination threshold despite years of various interventions, including antibiotic mass drug administration. To characterize transmission in four districts, we incorporated testing of ocular infection and serology into routine trachoma impact surveys (TIS) in August 2022. We examined residents aged ≥ 1 year for trachoma and collected information on household water, sanitation, and hygiene. Among children aged 1–9 years, we tested conjunctival swabs for Chlamydia trachomatis nucleic acid and dried blood spots for C. trachomatis antibodies. We modeled age-dependent seroprevalence to estimate seroconversion rate (SCR). We examined 4841 children aged 1–9 years. TF prevalence ranged between 1.1 and 6.0% with three districts below the 5% threshold. PCR-confirmed infection prevalence ranged between 1.1 and 4.8%, and Pgp3 seroprevalence ranged between 8.8 and 24.3%. Pgp3 SCR was 1.9 per 100 children per year in the district with the lowest TF prevalence. Two other districts with TF < 5% had SCR of 5.0 and 4.7. The district with TF ≥ 5% had a SCR of 6.0. This enhanced TIS furthered understanding of transmission in these districts and provides information on additional indicators for monitoring trachoma programs.

Residential Water Consumption Patterns: A Theoretical Review

The global water crisis and acute increase in water demand have increased stress on water resources in urban areas, particularly in water-scarce regions like Egypt. Many current strategies of sustainable water demand management show low effectiveness due to a lack of understanding of how water is used in households, and a failure to consider the environmental and urban diversity that shapes water consumption patterns in Egypt. This understanding requires knowing how water is consumed for micro-components of water use (i.e., end-uses such as bathing, cooking, and toilet use). This research aims to develop a conceptual/theoretical framework for probable worldwide water consumption patterns and their shaping factors, to be used as an auxiliary tool in future data collection and analysis in Egypt, which is an essential step to contextualize water consumption patterns and develop more sustainable water demand management strategies. The study reviews and analyzes water end-use data from 39 major cities in developed and developing countries to identify trends and critical factors in household water consumption. It documents six different major trends in household water consumption patterns with main water activities: cooking, bathing, washing machines, faucets, and toilet use. It also identifies and categorizes the patterns-shaping factors into five main groups: socioeconomic characteristics, physical, spatial, climatic conditions, and political restrictions. Moreover, significant correlations emerge between pattern elements and shaping forces such as income and washing machine usage, the presence/absence of children/elders and use of basin, and dietary culture and cooking consumption. Given the research findings, household consumption patterns in Egyptian cities are expected to be high in kitchens, showers, and toilets, and average in laundry and faucets. The study underscores the importance of considering factors such as socio-economic characteristics, water policies, spatial influences, water supply efficiency, and consumer health in forthcoming investigations, as these are believed to substantially influence household water consumption in Egypt.

Enhanced methane and energy generation from sewage water using microbial fuel cells with paddy field soil substrate

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have potential in wastewater treatment, biogas production and clean energy generation. MFCs provide an interdisciplinary research approach incorporating engineering and natural sciences. This study explores MFCs’ capabilities to produce electricity and biogas from wastewater and field soil substrates with different compositions. A two-chamber MFC system was operated anaerobically. Household sewage water used as the organic substrate with different soil amounts. Six different process feed compositions, labeled MFC-1–6, were investigated. MFC-1 exhibited the highest biogas generation volume of 245 cm³ and 42 mW/cm² power density. MFC-5 and −6 yielded 100 cm³ and 130 cm³, respectively. Wastewater treatment was effective on day 20, with pH, conductivity, turbidity, and total dissolved solids decreased to 7.3, 2.6 mS, 326 NTUs, and 1114 mg/L, respectively. Since, MFC-1 autonomously generated −800 mV, an external battery supplied an additional 600 mV to meet the methane generation voltage requirements. MFCs’ effectiveness in addressing wastewater treatment and renewable energy production was highlighted.

High prevalence of carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in fecal and water samples in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Abstract We evaluated Klebsiella pneumoniae (Kp) gut carriage in healthy, unrelated adults and children living in separate households in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Average Kp prevalence in stool samples ranged from 61% in young children (15/25) to 81% in adults (21/26), with significantly higher abundance in adults (p = 0.03, t-test). Kp was also prevalent in household water (64%, 21/33) and standing water (85%, 23/27). The presence of Kp in household water was not strongly linked to stool Kp abundance among household members. Antimicrobial resistance was notable: 9% (6/69) of stool and 16% (7/44) of water isolates exhibited multi-drug resistance. Carbapenem resistance was observed in 12% of stool isolates (8/69) and 14% of water isolates (6/44). These findings underscore the commonality of Kp in human and environmental reservoirs in Dhaka, Bangladesh, and highlight the emergence of drug-resistant Kp beyond healthcare settings.

Safety and security of household water purifiers against pathogenic microbial contamination and bio-risk evaluation of their microbial community structures

Household water filters, particularly point-of-use systems, are crucial to ensure safe drinking water consumption by eliminating microbial contaminants. This study evaluated the efficacy of three types of water purifiers (ultrafiltration [UF], nanofiltration [NF], and reverse osmosis [RO]) against microbial contamination. In our experiments, Escherichia coli and bacteriophage MS2 were used as two microbial indicators in daily household settings to track the spatial and temporal profiles of their behavior from the filter inlets to in-UF, NF, and RO water purifiers, and then to effluents. The results showed that both NF and RO water purifiers removed 100 % of the indicator organisms. The UF water purifier achieved 100 % removal of E. coli, but the removal of MS2 phage was poor. The presence of coexisting ions and natural organic matter in tap water can significantly affect the behavior of MS2 phages during the water treatment process. Their presence reduces the charge repulsion effect of the UF membrane on the MS2 phage as well as promotes the migration of the MS2 phage on the post-activated carbon cartridge that was placed in the last unit of the water purifier system, which could increase the pathogen transmission risks in drinking water supplies. The bacterial community structures of the cartridge materials and cartridge effluents from each unit were analyzed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing, which revealed distinct microbial profiles of the different purifiers. Environmental conditions such as pH, nutrient availability, materials, and operational parameters can affect the composition of bacterial communities. Scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) was used to examine the surface morphology of the membranes after they were exposed to water contaminants, which demonstrated that the inherent differences in the membrane structure influenced the retention of pollutants and microorganisms on the surfaces. In summary, this study demonstrates that both NF and RO water purifiers can significantly reduce the presence of various enteric and opportunistic pathogenic bacteria in drinking water, leading to safer potable water, whereas UF water purifiers may have certain risks owing to their UF membranes and post-activated carbon. In addition, secondary microbial contamination may be introduced by the post-activated carbon units of water purifiers, especially after long-term usage. Therefore, we concluded that addressing the secondary microbial pollution caused by post-activated carbon after prolonged use and long-term shutdown is essential for maintaining the safety and quality of drinking water.

Water insecurity may exacerbate food insecurity even in water-rich environments: Evidence from the Bolivian Amazon

Globally, challenges with water and food are two of the most pressing problems people face. Yet hydrologically water-rich environments and rural environments are often overlooked in these discussions due to abundance of natural water resources. Here we test the relationship between water and food insecurity among 270 Tsimane' households in the Bolivian Amazon. Water challenges were evaluated with the Household Water Insecurity Experiences Scale (HWISE), water quality perception, objective water quality analyses, and water access via the JMP drinking water ladder. Food insecurity was measured with the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), and quantitative measures of food frequency recall were used to further test the water and food insecurity relationship. Using multilevel mixed-effects linear regression, each point increase in HWISE score was associated with 0.47 point (95 % CI: 0.30, 0.62, p < 0.001) higher food insecurity, and households with access to improved water sources had between 1.25 and 1.36 points (95 % CI: −2.61, −0.01, p < 0.05) lower food insecurity compared to households reliant on surface water. These relationships held true independent of quantitative measures of both fish and meat consumption. Using mixed-effects logistic regression analyses, each point increase in HWISE score was associated with 43 % (95 % CI: 1.25–1.66, p < 0.001) increased odds of experiencing severe food insecurity. Households changing what was eaten due to experienced water problems was associated with 2.33 points (95 % CI: 0.41, 4.25, p < 0.05) higher food insecurity. This relationship held true independent of perceived water quality, indicating other structural water problems may be important here in the household water and food insecurity relationship. These results demonstrate that even in water-rich environments, like the Amazon, water and food insecurity are interconnected. Further, despite the challenging conditions, equitable structural interventions, like the development of improved water infrastructure, are critical for the provision of clean drinking water and may simultaneously help alleviate food insecurity.

Evaluation of the Safe Water Optimization Tool to Provide Evidence-Based Chlorination Targets in Surface Waters: Lessons from a Refugee Setting in Uganda.

The Safe Water Optimization Tool (SWOT) generates evidence-based point-of-distribution free residual chlorine (FRC) targets to adjust chlorine dosing by operators and ensure water quality at point-of-consumption. To investigate SWOT effectiveness in surface waters, we conducted two before-and-after mixed-method evaluations in a Uganda refugee settlement served by piped and trucked surface water systems. We surveyed 888 users on water knowledge, attitudes, and practices; collected 2768 water samples to evaluate FRC,Escherichia coli, and disinfection by-products (DBPs) concentrations; and conducted nine key-informant interviews with system operators about SWOT implementation. After baseline data collection, SWOT chlorination targets were generated, increasing point-of-distribution FRC targets from 0.2 to 0.7-0.8 mg/L and from 0.3 to 0.9 mg/L for piped and trucked systems, respectively. At endline, household point-of-consumption FRC ≥ 0.2 mg/L increased from 23 to 35% and from 8 to 42% in the two systems. With these increases, we did not observe increased chlorinated water rejection or DBPs concentrations exceeding international guidelines. Informants reported that SWOT implementation increased knowledge and capacity and improved operations. Overall, SWOT-generated chlorination targets increased chlorine dosage, which improved household water quality in surface waters although less than previously documented with groundwater sources. Additional operator support on prechlorination water treatment processes is needed to ensure maximally effective SWOT implementation for surface water sources.

Water insecurity is associated with intimate partner violence among female adolescents and youth but not males in rural Tanzania: A cross-sectional study

ABSTRACT Food insecurity increases intimate partner violence (IPV), but less is known about water insecurity (WI) and IPV. We examined the association between household WI and IPV among adolescents and youth in the Mbeya and Iringa regions of Tanzania. The cross-sectional sample comprised 977 males and females aged 18–23 years living in rural, impoverished households. We conducted multivariate logistic regression analyses to estimate the association between experiences of WI [measured by the Household Water Insecurity Experiences (HWISE-4) Scale] and physical and/or emotional IPV (measured by an adapted Conflict Tactics Scale). Overall, WI (HWISE ≥4) was associated with 74% higher odds of any IPV (marginal effects (ME) of 7.8 percentage points (pp)), compared to those not WI. Among females (but not males), WI was associated with 3-fold higher odds of any IPV (OR = 3.00; 95% CI: [1.52, 5.94]; ME = 14 pp). Compared to non-WI females, WI females had 5- and 2-fold higher odds of IPV (ME = 30.8 and 11.3 pp) among the ever married and never married sub-samples, respectively. The association between WI and IPV among females was attenuated (OR = 1.93; 95% CI: [0.93, 3.97]) when adjusting for household food insecurity. Ameliorating water insecurity is a promising avenue for IPV reduction.

Water scarcity and its implications on sanitation: A perspective study in an emerging city in Northern Ghana

Water scarcity is a critical global challenge affecting billions of people, particularly in developing regions like sub-Saharan Africa. In Ghana, this issue has become increasingly pronounced, with limited access to clean and safe water posing serious threats to the health and livelihoods of many communities. This study investigated the intricate relationship between water scarcity and accessibility, and the associated implications on sanitation practices in Damongo, a newly created regional capital and an emerging city. The study showed that the area faced evident water scarcity, with a daily per capita water consumption as low as 0.128 m3. Mechanized boreholes emerged as potential solutions, particularly for the 61.2% of respondents experiencing waiting times exceeding 15 min. The economic repercussions were noteworthy, as high water costs impacted livelihoods, emphasizing the need for policy interventions, especially for low-income households. Sanitation challenges are widespread, with 62.8% relying on pit latrines, and 56.1% lacking proper infrastructure. Water and sanitation-related diseases like typhoid and diarrhoea highlight the need for urgent interventions to enhance water quality and sanitation practices. Household water infrastructure analysis revealed diverse, primarily privately owned sources. Gender imbalances persist in water-fetching responsibilities, with 58.2% relying solely on females. Domestic water sources predominantly involved traditional options, potentially exposing residents to unsafe practices. Sanitation maintenance practices and intervals varied, signaling the necessity for comprehensive solutions. Households without toilets resorted to open spaces (43.6%), gutters (29.1%), and public toilets (12.7%), indicating challenges in waste disposal and sanitation facility access. Insights on the health dimension considered uncovering the prevalence of the top five water and sanitation-related diseases for 2022. These included typhoid (24.3%), diarrhoea (30.0%), Cholera (11.7%), Dysentery (14.6%), and Hepatitis (19.3%). These findings suggest the pressing need for improved sanitation and clean water access, as inadequate infrastructure and water scarcity contribute significantly to these health challenges.

The Design and Construction of Overcurrent Soft Starting on ESP32 Microcontroller Based Water Machine

The advancement of household water pump technology utilizing induction motors provides numerous benefits, such as efficiency and low cost, but also faces challenges like high inrush current. This study demonstrates the necessity of voltage reduction methods to address high inrush currents that can impact home electrical systems. Testing reveals that the device's error percentage is 0.31%, indicating good performance. The DHT22 and PZEM sensors operate optimally in detecting temperature and current, and controlling relays and water pumps according to the specified thresholds, achieving a 100% system success rate. These results confirm that the system operates as expected according to the specifications.

Microbiological Analysis of Household Water Tanks in Egypt

Microbiological Analysis of Household Water Tanks in Egypt

A Study of Gender Perspectives on Farmers' Livelihood Resources in a Dryland Farming Community of Lombok Island, Indonesia

Aim: A case study on Lombok Island, Indonesia, examined livelihood resources among rain-fed rice farmers from a gender perspective. Study Design: Using a descriptive approach, the study purposely selected dryland and rain-fed farming communities reliant on agriculture. Place and Duration of the Study: The study was conducted in the southern part of Lombok Island between December 2023 to January 2024. Methodology: Data from 30 respondents (15 male, 15 female farmers) assessed livelihood resources across human, natural, financial, social, and physical aspects. Analysis employed categorical techniques and mode calculations. Results: Male farmers predominated in managing human resources and natural resources such as land and water ownership. Females excelled in household water use, technology adoption, and accessing financial aid. Both genders managed income and savings similarly, with males showing greater agricultural knowledge and communication skills. Conclusion: These insights underscore the nuanced gender dynamics in resource management and highlight the need for gender-responsive policies to foster sustainable livelihoods in vulnerable dryland communities.

Porphyrinoid macrocycles as potential photosensitizers for photodynamic inhibition of biofilm formation in household water storage systems

AbstractThe issue of biofilm formation by microorganisms in household water storage systems is a problem that lowers the efficiency of disinfectants. Antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation (aPDI) is a potential alternative to the current water disinfection methods. It employs a photosensitizer agent that inactivates microbes by absorbing light of a specific wavelength in the presence of molecular oxygen. Although aPDI has been proven in literature to have a wide spectrum of action, effective against resistant microbes and biofilms, it has not been approved for real-life applications yet. Therefore, there is an ongoing search for ideal photosensitizers that can produce sufficient reactive oxygen species for efficient inactivation of microbes and disruption of biofilms in household water storage systems. This review summarises the developments that have been made so far with porphyrin-, expanded porphyrin-, corrole-, and boron dipyrromethene-based photosensitizers. First, the issues with the current water disinfection methods are described, and then aPDI is also described as a possible alternative to the current methods. Emphasis is put on the antimicrobial activities and the solid support materials that the porphyrinoid family members have been incorporated into for potential application in the disinfection of household water and limitation of biofilm formation in water storage systems.

AMI water meters deliver end-use water and financial savings in leaky households: experimental evidence from California

Abstract Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) for residential water consumption is exploding globally giving water utilities the ability to improve their water tracking, billing, and distribution systems’ leak detection. With AMI, utilities have also gained the opportunity to provide real-time high-resolution water consumption information to their customers to induce conservation. Using a randomized controlled trial we find that on average homes that install AMI and receive conservation based messaging significantly reduce water consumption by 5.24 gallons per household per day beyond savings already obtained from home water reports. Of the estimated water savings we attribute 92.8% to leak reduction. While the payback period from the deployment of AMI meters and treatment in all homes is over 41 years, homes that experience leaks realize financial savings of $60/year and a treatment payback period of four years. This is because treatment did not induce water or financial savings in homes without leaks. These findings indicate that even on top of existing conservation programs, AMI messaging that targets end-user leaks could result in significant water savings, economic benefits to end-users, and advance conservation goals.

Causes of the Groundwater Levels Rise in the Absheron Peninsula and the Ways of its Regulation

In connection with the growth of Baku city and its adjacent regions located in the Absheron Peninsula, this territory is the most densely populated part of our republic. The waste from industrial enterprises and oil and gas fields, a significant part of which is also located within the Peninsula, has a negative influence on the ecological situation of the studied area. This article provides an overview of the hydrogeological conditions of various areas of the object under study and identifies changes in the level of groundwater in these areas while establishing the reasons for its rise. Physical and chemical analyses of water samples taken from drilled wells and dug wells throughout the region were carried out. The reasons for the increase in the level of underground water were established, which lead to flooding, swamping, and recurrent salinization of the soil in the Absheron Peninsula. Measures and recommendations were developed to restore the ecological balance of the study area. In addition, groundwater, phreatimetric data, and water reservoir strikes in cities, villages, and settlements located on the peninsula were studied. The physico-chemical composition of underground waters and their mineralization levels were studied in laboratory conditions. The groundwater levels in drilled and dug wells across the peninsula were established and compared with data from historical records and literature. The studies conducted allowed for the evaluation of the suitability of groundwater for various national and economic uses. It has been established that, simultaneously with natural factors, anthropogenic factors have had a significant influence on the rise in the level of groundwater, including the absence of central sewage and drainage systems, the discharge of water from industrial enterprises, and household water, among others. To eliminate the environmental emergency, it is recommended to carry out priority temporary measures in some areas of the Absheron Peninsula at the initial stage.

A feasibility study to estimate household water footprint in Iran: Adaptation and application of a localized questionnaire

Iran, grappling with the challenges common to arid and semi-arid regions, is confronting a significant freshwater scarcity that exacerbates its water crisis. Central to this issue is the provision of an adequate domestic water supply. This study embarked on adapting a localized water footprint questionnaire to gauge individual household water footprints within the Iranian context. Utilizing a cross-sectional approach, we adapted and validated a water footprint questionnaire tool tailored for Iranian consumers. The original questionnaire, derived from watercalculator.org, comprises 35 questions encompassing direct household water use, direct non-household water use, and indirect water use. Following its translation, cultural adaptation, and validation, the questionnaire was deployed for data collection. The investigation unveiled average water footprints as follows: a direct indoor water footprint (DWFin) of 133.31±65.54 lpcd, a direct outdoor water footprint (DWFout) of 1.89±1.73 lpcd, and an indirect water footprint (IWF) of 4284.94±714.33 lpcd, culminating in an overall average water footprint (WF) of 4420.14 ± 695.17 lpcd. Despite the study's limitations, including a sample that may not fully capture all provincial demographics, the findings underscore the practicability of employing this methodology in Iran and the significant potential for water conservation through heightened awareness and the policy-driven implementation of water-efficient practices at the household level.