Housefly Larvae Research Articles

Comparison of Host-Seeking Behavior of the Filth Fly Pupal Parasitoids, Spalangia cameroni and Muscidifurax raptor (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae).

The pupal parasitoids, Spalangia cameroni Perkins and Muscidifurax raptor Girault and Sanders, can be purchased for biological control of house flies Musca domestica L. and stable flies Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae). Little is known about the odors involved in host-seeking behavior of these two species, so odors associated with house flies were investigated in the laboratory using a Y-tube olfactometer. Odor stimuli from house fly host puparia, larvae, pine-shavings bedding with horse manure, and developing flies in the pine-shavings-manure substrate were evaluated in bioassays using the two pteromalid species. In choice tests, naïve female S. cameroni were strongly attracted to odor from the substrate containing house fly larvae and secondarily from the uninfested substrate and substrate with puparia versus humidified and purified air. This species also selected the substrate with larvae versus the substrate with the house fly puparia or uninfested substrate. Muscidifurax raptor was attracted to odor from the substrate containing puparia, washed puparia, and substrate with puparia removed. The data suggest that coexistence between the two pteromalid parasitoids, S. cameroni and M. raptor, might be promoted by different host-seeking behavior.

A study of the effect of Bacillus thuringiensis serotype H14 (subspecies israelensis) delta endotoxin on Musca larva.

House flies (Musca domestica) are of major public health concern in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene conditions. Biological control through the use of parasitoids and pathogens is one of the alternatives to the use of chemical pesticides for control of insects of public health importance. The effects of the delta endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis on house fly larval mortality were studied. Gel filtration and SDS-PAGE methods were used for separation and purification of proteins. Delta endotoxin was incubated with larvae in concentrations of 0.43 mg/mL and 0.27 mg/mL in bioassay tests. The results of this study indicated protein crystal toxicity against larvae of the house fly. A concentration of 0.43 mg/mL of this toxin caused 100% mortality in house fly larvae. The LD50 amount of these toxins was calculated as 125 µg/g. The results of this study suggest that the use of the protein crystal including delta endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis serotype H14 is an effective weapon in the biological fight against the house fly.

Evaluation of Extract from Sweet Flag Rhizome for Biological Activity against House Fly

The problem of house fly has become more acute everywhere especially in poultry and piggery farms. They act as potential vector for many viral, bacterial, helminthic and protozoan diseases and as nuisance pests. The control of fly is very much effected by the use of synthetic organic insecticides. These drugs, even though efficacious, can be detrimental to the mankind and environment and also lead to the development of resistance. Hence, in the present study, the larvicidal and adulticidal effect of Vasambu ( Acorus calamus) were evaluated against the housefly. For larvicidal evaluation, the test drug, Vasambu at different concentrations (1 per cent, 2 per cent, 3 per cent and 4 per cent) was sprayed on the dung sample containing 100 number of 3rd instar larvae of house fly. The larvae were observed daily for the development of pupae and subsequent emergence of adult fly. Lowest fly emergence (Highest mortality of larvae) was observed in 4 per cent and 3 per cent treatment groups and they differed highly significantly (P<0.01) with rest of the groups. There is no significant difference between 4 and 3 per cent treated groups and between the 1 per cent, 2 per cent and control groups. For adulticidal effect, Vasambu at different concentrations (2, 4 and 6 per cent) were used as bait (consisting of rice bran, jaggery and Vasambu). Fifty number of house fly pupae were placed in a fly rearing chamber. Immediately after the emergence of the first fly, the Vasambu bait was kept inside the fly rearing chamber and observed daily for the mortality. Highest fly mortality was observed in bait incorporated with 6 per cent concentration and it differed significantly (P<0.05) with control and 2 per cent treated treatment groups. However, there is no significant difference between 6 per cent and 4 per cent treatment groups and between 4 per cent, 2 per cent and control groups.

Attenuation of veterinary antibiotics in full-scale vermicomposting of swine manure via the housefly larvae (Musca domestica).

Animal waste from concentrated swine farms is widely considered to be a source of environmental pollution, and the introduction of veterinary antibiotics in animal manure to ecosystems is rapidly becoming a major public health concern. A housefly larvae (Musca domestica) vermireactor has been increasingly adopted for swine manure value-added bioconversion and pollution control, but few studies have investigated its efficiency on antibiotic attenuation during manure vermicomposting. In this study we explored the capacity and related attenuation mechanisms of antibiotic degradation and its linkage with waste reduction by field sampling during a typical cycle (6 days) of full-scale larvae manure vermicomposting. Nine antibiotics were dramatically removed during the 6-day vermicomposting process, including tetracyclines, sulfonamides, and fluoroquinolones. Of these, oxytetracycline and ciprofloxacin exhibited the greater reduction rate of 23.8 and 32.9 mg m−2, respectively. Environmental temperature, pH, and total phosphorus were negatively linked to the level of residual antibiotics, while organic matter, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, microbial respiration intensity, and moisture exhibited a positive effect. Pyrosequencing data revealed that the dominant phyla related to Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Proteobacteria accelerated manure biodegradation likely through enzyme catalytic reactions, which may enhance antibiotic attenuation during vermicomposting.

Účinok prasacieho hnoja fermentovaného larvami muchy domácej na úrodové parametre slnečnice ročnej

The effect of fermented pig manure processed on a bed of wooden shavings and fermented for seven days by larvae of house flies on the yield parameters of sunflowers have been investigated on Haplic Luvisol in the pot trial realized in vegetative cage placed on the territory of SAU in Nitra. The experiment consisted of six treatments (0, NPK, Manure1, Manure2, Manure3, Veget). Treatments 0, NPK, and Veget were compared with the treatments Manure1, Manure2, and Manure3, i.e. with fermented manure applied at doses of 4, 6, and 8 t . ha−1.The results showed that application of fermented manure resulted in statistically significant greater stem thickness, higher leaf chlorophyll content, composites and harvest yield of seeds. The plants appeared healthy. Increasing the doses of fermented manure resulted in greater harvest yield of achenes and fat content in them. The dose of 4 t . ha−1 of fermented manure has proven to be insufficient.Out of the tested doses of 4, 6 and 8 t . ha−1 of fermented manure the highest achene yield has been achieved at the dose of 8 t . ha−1 but it was lower than the yield of the treatments fertilized by NPK fertilizers or Veget. From the viewpoint of achene yield quality (fat content) out of six variants the best parameters were achieved with the treatment where fermented manure at the dose of 8 t . ha−1 was applied.The gathered data point towards the applicability and usefulness of manure processed by larvae of flies in agronomy. It is of note, that the manure fermentation period can be significantly shortened, whereby reducing the storage difficulties.

Genome of the house fly, Musca domestica L., a global vector of diseases with adaptations to a septic environment.

BackgroundAdult house flies, Musca domestica L., are mechanical vectors of more than 100 devastating diseases that have severe consequences for human and animal health. House fly larvae play a vital role as decomposers of animal wastes, and thus live in intimate association with many animal pathogens.ResultsWe have sequenced and analyzed the genome of the house fly using DNA from female flies. The sequenced genome is 691 Mb. Compared with Drosophila melanogaster, the genome contains a rich resource of shared and novel protein coding genes, a significantly higher amount of repetitive elements, and substantial increases in copy number and diversity of both the recognition and effector components of the immune system, consistent with life in a pathogen-rich environment. There are 146 P450 genes, plus 11 pseudogenes, in M. domestica, representing a significant increase relative to D. melanogaster and suggesting the presence of enhanced detoxification in house flies. Relative to D. melanogaster, M. domestica has also evolved an expanded repertoire of chemoreceptors and odorant binding proteins, many associated with gustation.ConclusionsThis represents the first genome sequence of an insect that lives in intimate association with abundant animal pathogens. The house fly genome provides a rich resource for enabling work on innovative methods of insect control, for understanding the mechanisms of insecticide resistance, genetic adaptation to high pathogen loads, and for exploring the basic biology of this important pest. The genome of this species will also serve as a close out-group to Drosophila in comparative genomic studies.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13059-014-0466-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Investigating the insecticidal potential of Geomyces (Myxotrichaceae: Helotiales) and Mortierella (Mortierellacea: Mortierellales) isolated from Antarctica.

Fungi isolated from environmentally challenging habitats can have adaptations of potential value when developed as insect pest-controls. Fungal isolates collected from Antarctica, Geomyces sp. I, Geomyces sp. II, Mortierella signyensis and M. alpina, were investigated for (i) growth characteristics at 0–35°C, (ii) spore production at 10 and 20°C, (iii) viability following exposure to freezing temperatures, and (iv) insecticidal activity against waxmoths (Galleria mellonella L.), houseflies (Musca domestica L.), mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L.) and black vine weevils (Otiorhynchus sulcatus Fabricius). All isolates showed growth between 5–20°C, with some showing growth outside this range. Geomyces isolates sporulated over a wider range of conditions than the Mortierella isolates. Spore germination at 10°C was higher for Geomyces sp. II when this isolate was produced at 10 compared to 20°C (greatest difference 74.6 vs 32.7%). All isolates grew, with the exception of M. alpina, following exposure to −20°C for 4 weeks. Insecticidal investigations showed M. alpina and M. signyensis caused significant mortality of waxmoth and housefly larvae via injection and soil inoculation, and M. alpina caused significant mortality of housefly larvae via baiting; the Geomyces isolates had little lethal effect.

Use of two formulations and two application techniques to deliver Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis for the control of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) larvae and adults in poultry houses

A field study was carried out for 6 wks to assess, from both an efficiency and economic perspective, the effect of individual and integrated success of feeding and topical applications of two formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti) in controlling house fly (Musca domestica L.) larvae and adults in poultry houses. There was no significant difference between the 1 g and 2 g L−1 spray applications of Bti. In the absence of spray applications, no significant differences in larval mortalities were observed between the 250 mg and 500 mg kg−1 feed applications. The percentage mortality of larvae accomplished as a result of using a combination of 250 mg kg−1Bti feed and 2 g L−1 spray applications was equivalent to that obtained as a result of combining 500 mg kg−1Bti and 1g L−1 spray applications. Treatment with Bti caused significant reductions in the emergence (up to 74%) of house fly adults compared to the control. The fact that the emergence of adult house flies was affected by Bti treatments implies that Bti has sublethal effects on house fly larvae. The cost–benefit analysis (expressed in terms of mortality of larvae growing) indicated that the most effective combination for house fly larvae and adult house fly emergence control was the 500 mg kg−1 of feed and 2 g L−1 spray application combination that resulted in 67% larval mortality and a 74% decrease in adult house fly emergence. This study presents commercial users with various alternatives for possible combinations of the two Bti formulations.

Insecticidal activity of chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) extracts against two dipterous insect-disease vectors: Mosquito and housefly

The plant chicory, Cichorium intybus L. (Asteraceae), was subjected to a bioassay-guided fractionation scheme, starting with successive extraction of the whole plant powder with petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate and methanol. Toxicity screening against larvae and adults of the mosquito (Anopheles pharoensis) and the housefly (Musca domestica), revealed high potency for petroleum ether and chloroform extracts, with LC50 of 15.3mgkg−1 and 0.023mg/cm2 against larvae and adults of mosquitoes, respectively. The LC50 for housefly larvae equaled 65.8mgkg−1 and the LD50 for adults equaled 0.112μg/insect. Saponification of petroleum ether extract resulted in saponifiable and unsaponifiable fractions, the latter was highly toxic than the former. Their activity was referred to the presence of fatty acid methyl esters in the saponifiable fraction, and sterols and hydrocarbons in the unsaponifiable fraction. Successive TLC fractionation to the chloroformic extract resulted in isolation and identification of two biologically active compounds, e.g., lactucopicrin-15-oxalate (compound I) and chicoralexin (compound II); both showed high toxicity towards the two tested insects. Compound II was more toxic than compound I to the mosquito larvae, while the opposite was obtained for the housefly larvae. The two compounds possessed equitoxic values against the adult stages of both insects. It was concluded that fractionation of the chicory plant (C. intybus) was in favor of toxicity increase towards the two insect pests used in the present study. Moreover, the obtained results provide new data on the insecticidal efficacy of this native plant against pests of medical importance such as mosquitoes and housefly.

Biodiesel production from swine manure via housefly larvae (Musca domestica L.)

Although biodiesel is a sustainable and renewable diesel fuel, the current feedstock predominantly from edible oils limits the economic feasibility of biodiesel production and thus the development of a cost-effective non-food feedstock is really essential. In this study, approximately 21.6% of crude grease was extracted from housefly (Musca domestica L.) larvae reared on swine manure, and the extracted grease was evaluated for biodiesel production concerning the variables affecting the yield of acid-catalyzed production of methyl esters and the properties of the housefly larvae-based biodiesel. The optimized process of 8:1 methanol/grease (mol/mol) with 2 vol% H2SO4 reacted at 70 °C for 2 h resulted in a 95.7% conversion rate from free fatty acid (FFA) into methyl esters. A 90.3% conversion rate of triglycerides (crude grease) to its esters was obtained from alkaline trans-esterification using sodium hydroxide as catalyst. The major fatty acid components of this larvae grease were palmitic (29.1%), oleic (23.3%), palmitoletic (17.4%) and linoleic (17.2%). The housefly larvae-based biodiesel has reached the ASTM D6751-10 standard in density (881 kg/m3), viscosity (5.64 mm2/s), ester content (96.8%), flash point (145 °C), and cetane number (52). These findings suggest that the grease derived from swine manure-grown housefly larvae can be a feasible non-food feedstock for biodiesel production.

Transmission electron microscopic morphological study and flow cytometric viability assessment of Acinetobacter baumannii susceptible to Musca domestica cecropin.

Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Acinetobacter baumannii infections are difficult to treat owing to the extremely limited armamentarium. Expectations about antimicrobial peptides' use as new powerful antibacterial agents have been raised on the basis of their unique mechanism of action. Musca domestica cecropin (Mdc), a novel antimicrobial peptide from the larvae of Housefly (Musca domestica), has potently active against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria standard strain. Here we evaluated the antibacterial activity of Mdc against clinical isolates of MDR-A. baumannii and elucidate the related antibacterial mechanisms. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of Mdc was 4 μg/mL. Bactericidal kinetics of Mdc revealed rapid killing of A. baumannii (30 min). Flow cytometry using viability stain demonstrated that Mdc causes A. baumannii membrane permeabilization in a concentration- and time-dependent process, which correlates with the bactericidal action. Moreover, transmission electron microscopic (TEM) examination showed that Mdc is capable of disrupting the membrane of bacterial cells, resulting in efflux of essential cytoplasmic components. Overall, Mdc could be a promising antibacterial agent for MDR-A. baumannii infections.

Significance and Survival of Enterococci During the House Fly Development

House flies are among the most important nonbiting insect pests of medical and veterinary importance. Larvae develop in decaying organic substrates and their survival strictly depends on an active microbial community. House flies have been implicated in the ecology and transmission of enterococci, including multi-antibiotic-resistant and virulent strains of Enterococcus faecalis. In this study, eight American Type Culture Collection type strains of enterococci including Enterococcus avium, Enterococcus casseliflavus, Enterococcus durans, Enterococcus hirae, Enterococcus mundtii, Enterococcus gallinarum, Enterococcusfaecalis, and Enterococcusfaecium were evaluated for their significance in the development of house flies from eggs to adults in bacterial feeding assays. Furthermore, the bacterial colonization of the gut of teneral flies as well as the importance of several virulence traits of E. faecalis in larval mortality was assessed. Overall survival of house flies (egg to adult) was significantly higher when grown with typically nonpathogenic enterococcal species such as E. hirae (76.0% survival), E. durans (64.0%), and E. avium (64.0%) compared with that with clinically important species E. faecalis (24.0%) and E. faecium (36.0%). However, no significant differences in survival of house fly larvae were detected when grown with E. faecalis strains carrying various virulence traits, including isogenic mutants of the human clinical isolate E. faecalis V583 with in-frame deletions of gelatinase, serine protease, and capsular polysaccharide serotype C. Enterococci were commonly detected in fly puparia (range: 75-100%; concentration: 103-105 CFU/puparium);however, the prevalence of enterococci in teneral flies varied greatly: from 25.0 (E. casseliflavus) to 89.5% (E. hirae). In conclusion, depending on the species, enterococci variably support house fly larval development and colonize the gut of teneral adults. The human pathogenic species, E. faecalis and E. faecium, poorly support larval development and are likely acquired in nature by adult flies during feeding. House fly larvae do not appear to be a suitable model organism for assessment of enterococcal virulence traits.

Biocontrol potential of essential oil monoterpenes against housefly, Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae)

Housefly (Musca domestica L.), one of the most common insects in human settlements, has been associated as vectors for various food-borne pathogens, causing food spoilage and disease transmission. The control of housefly was attempted using plant monoterpenes; menthone, menthol, menthyl acetate, limonene, citral and 1,8-cineole, against different life stages of housefly. Bioefficacy against housefly adults revealed highest repellent activity by menthol (95.6 percent) and menthone (83.3 percent). Against housefly larvae, menthol with an LC90 of 0.02µl/cm2 in contact toxicity assay and menthone with a LC90 value of 5.4µl/L in fumigation assay were found to be most effective control agent. With respect to pupicidal activity, superior performance was shown by menthol, citral and 1,8-cineole in contact toxicity assay and citral and 1,8-cineole in fumigation assay. Limonene was found to be the poorest performer in all the assays. Overall, highest efficacy observed for menthol and menthone in various bioassays was in agreement with the results of essential oil activity obtained previously. Significant activity of monoterpenes against various life stages of housefly demonstrates their potential as excellent insecticides with prospects of monoterpenes being developed into eco-friendly and acceptable products for housefly control.

Effect of temperature and humidity on pathogenicity of native Beauveria bassiana isolate against Musca domestica L.

Beauveria bassiana HQ917687 virulence to housefly larvae and adult was assessed at different relative humidity, RH (50, 75, 90, and 100%) and temperature (15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45°C) conditions at the fungal dose of 10(8)conidia/ml. Depending on the temperature and RH regime tested, difference in mortality rates of housefly adult and larvae were detected. During assay on adult housefly, 100% mortality was achieved at RH, 90 and 100% while the temperature of 30°C showed maximum mortality at all the tested humidity conditions. Lethal time, LT50 was 2.9days at 100% RH. Larval mortality at different humidity conditions varied between 30 and 74%, with maximum mortality at 100% RH and 30°C. Optimum temperature for B. bassiana virulence to housefly larvae was also found to be 30°C. The interaction between temperature and RH revealed significant effect of RH at moderate temperature range (20-35°C), while such an interaction was not observed at extreme temperatures. The results obtained in this study have useful implications in understanding the pathogen behavior under actual field conditions. This in turn may help devising suitable entomopathogen release schedules for maximum fungal infection.

Preparation and characterization of PEG-Mentha oil nanoparticles for housefly control

Nanoparticles of Mentha×piperita essential oil were prepared by melt-dispersion method. The nanoparticles prepared at varying oil doses (5–10%, w/v) showed an encapsulation efficiency of 78.2–83.4%, while the oil load was observed to range between 3.64 and 7.46%. The average particle size of the nanoparticles varied between 226 and 331nm, while polydispersity index showed variation between 0.547 and 1.000. DSC analysis indicated endothermic reaction during formation of nanoparticles, while a 2-term exponential kinetic model was followed during oil release. Nanoparticles showed considerable mortality against housefly larvae in lab (100%) as well as simulated field condition after first week (93%) and 6th week (57%) of application. This was the first study utilizing controlled release property of nanoparticles to formulate a cost effective product for breeding site application against housefly.

The carcass quality, meat quality and sensory characteristics of broilers raised on diets containing either Musca domestica larvae meal, fish meal or soya bean meal as the main protein source

The effects of Musca domestica (common house fly) larvae meal (magmeal) on the meat quality of broiler chickens were investigated in a trial consisting of three isonitrogenous and isoenergetic treatment diets containing either 10% fish meal, 10% M. domestica larvae meal or a control diet with soya bean meal as the protein source. Chicks that received either the 10% M. domestica larvae meal or 10% fish meal produced significantly heavier carcasses and had a higher breast-meat yield than did the control chicks. Sensory attributes evaluated by a trained sensory panel included chicken aroma, metallic aroma, initial juiciness, chicken flavour, sustained juiciness, metallic aftertaste, toughness and mealiness. The samples were judged to have a prominent chicken aroma but a less prominent chicken flavour. Although the samples had a moderate initial juiciness, they did not have a sustained juiciness except for the larvae-fed samples, which had higher sustained juiciness values; all samples were perceived as tender; fishmeal-fed samples were judged more mealy than larvae-fed samples, with the control being intermediary; larvae-fed samples had higher metallic aroma and aftertaste values, although these values were low and unlikely to be detected by consumers. Comparison of meat-quality characteristics showed no treatment differences for breast- and thigh-muscle colour, pH, water holding capacity or cooking losses. Significant differences were observed for drip loss, with the lowest drip loss reported for the larvae meal-fed samples, followed by the control diet and the highest for fish meal-fed samples. It is concluded that the inclusion of larvae meal into the diets of broilers will have positive rather than any detrimental effects on most carcass, meat and sensory characteristics.

Antibacterial potency of housefly larvae extract from sewage sludge through bioconversion

Use of the fly to convert sewage sludge into nutrient-rich soil conditioner and amendment is an attractive approach for sludge bioconversion. During this process, fecal coliforms, an indicating pathogen, in sludge were reduced to 5.3 × 102 most probable number/g dry solid from initial 3.32 × 106 MPN/g dry solid. It was also found that the extract of larvae grown in sludge during bioconversion have an observable inhibitory effect against bacteria compared to larvae grown in wheat bran as measured by minimum bacterial concentration tests. In vitro antimicrobial assay tests over time also showed that the extract had strong inhibitory efficiencies of ca. 99% against Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Serratia marcescens, while the efficiency was 69% and 57% against Bacillus subtilis and Klebsiella pneumoniae, respectively. The observed pathogenic bacterial cell membrane damage was found to be responsible for the phenomenon mentioned above, with nuclear acids leaching out quickly and alkaline phosphatase increasing in the outer membrane, followed by an increase of β-galactosidase in the inner membrane. Clearly, housefly larvae extract from sewage sludge through bioconversion possesses antibacterial potency against pathogenic bacteria.

Protective effect of polypeptides from larva of housefly (Musca domestica) on hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative damage in HepG2 cells

Housefly (Musca domestica) is an important medical insect and its larva is an ideal high protein food source. We isolated from housefly larvae the polypeptides hydrolyzed by neutral protease (PHNP), and investigated the protective effect of PHNP on hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced oxidative damage in HepG2 cells. Cells exposed to H₂O₂ showed a marked decrease in proliferation and intracellular superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, and a significant increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and malondialdehyde (MDA) content. H₂O₂ also caused apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction including mitochondrial fragmentation and the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Pretreatment with PHNP at concentrations of 2.5, 5, 10 μg/mL blocked these H₂O₂-induced cellular events in a dose-dependent manner. The effect of PHNP at 10 μg/mL is equal to that of ascorbic acid at 10 μM. In summary, PHNP has a protective effect against H₂O₂-induced oxidative injury in cells due to its ability to decrease intracellular ROS and elevate antioxidant enzyme activities.

Preparation, characterization, and insecticidal activity evaluation of three different formulations of Beauveria bassiana against Musca domestica

Three formulations; bait, encapsulation, and emulsion of Beauveria bassiana were prepared and evaluated for their insecticidal activity in simulated field settings. Tea waste-based bait formulation of B. bassiana showed 100% mortality (within 72 h) in lab assay against adult houseflies. In field assay using traps, 65% relative entrapment and 100 % mortality (within 60 h) of entrapped flies was observed. Although the bait formulation was low cost and easy to prepare and transport, its storage ability was limited. Hence, more advanced formulations in form of encapsulation and emulsion was attempted. Encapsulated B. bassiana conidia (using skimmed milk powder, polyvinyl pyrrolidone K-90 and glucose as additives) showed 100% conidial germination and retained 78% conidial viability, even after storage for 12 months at 30 °C. Encapsulated product showed 54.8% (freshly prepared) and 30.6 % (after 12-months storage) mortality of housefly larvae in a simulated field condition. Emulsion formulation was prepared by using Tween 20 as surfactant with seven vegetable oils: soybean, rapeseed, sunflower, olive, castor, til, and linseed. Emulsion with linseed oil showing maximum conidial germination (94%) was evaluated for shelf life and pathogenecity against housefly larvae. Shelf life analysis of emulsion revealed 28% conidial germination and 19.9% housefly larval mortality after 12 months of storage as opposed to 94% conidial germination and 51.7% of larval mortality with fresh product. Significant increase in shelf × targeted application of formulation is expected to increase its mass applicability for housefly control. Also, the variability among products presents diverse opportunities for commercialization.

Unusual Pseudomyiasis with Musca Domestica (Housefly) Larvae in a Tracheostomy Wound: A Case Report and Literature Review

We report a case of pseudomyiasis (accidental myiasis) in a 52-year-old man who had previously undergone surgery and placement of a tracheostomy tube for laryngeal cancer. The patient presented to our outpatient department with a foul-smelling, blood-stained discharge and frequent and severe episodic pain at the site of the tracheostomy. He also reported the discharge of many whitish larvae from the site. On clinical examination, 3 of these larvae were removed from the tracheostomy wound and later identified as Musca domestica (housefly) larvae. The patient underwent further mechanical removal twice daily for 3 days, during which time 23 more larvae, or maggots, were removed. His condition improved, and he returned for regular follow-up with no recurrence or complications. Myiasis is an infestation of humans and vertebrate animals by insect larvae that feed on both dead and living tissue. Myiasis is most common in hot and humid climates in tropical and subtropical regions, such as the underdeveloped areas of India, Africa, and Southeast Asia, which provide favorable breeding grounds for flies. Myiasis is classified as specific, semispecific, or accidental, depending on whether the fly larvae require a host in order to develop. We review the literature on myiasis and its entomologic aspects in general. We also discuss the need for the proper care of tracheostomy wound myiasis because the site of such an infestation is close to vital organs in the neck. To the best of our knowledge, only 3 cases of tracheostomy wound myiasis have been previously reported in the English-language literature; 2 of them involved infestation with Chrysomyia bezziana larvae and 1 with Lucilia caesar larvae. We believe our case is the first case of tracheostomy wound pseudomyiasis attributable to M domestica larvae.