House Children Research Articles

Association of food-hygiene practices and diarrhea prevalence among Indonesian young children from low socioeconomic urban areas

BackgroundInformation on the part that poor food-hygiene practices play a role in the development of diarrhea in low socioeconomic urban communities is lacking. This study was therefore aimed at assessing the contribution of food-hygiene practice to the prevalence of diarrhea among Indonesian children.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted among 274 randomly selected children aged 12–59 months in selected low socioeconomic urban areas of East Jakarta. The prevalence of diarrhea was assessed from 7-day records on frequency and consistency of the child’s defecation pattern. Food-hygiene practices including mother’s and child’s hand washing, food preparation, cleanliness of utensils, water source and safe drinking water, habits of buying cooked food, child’s bottle feeding hygiene, and housing and environmental condition were collected through home visit interviews and observations by fieldworkers. Thirty-six practices were scored and classified into poor (median and below) and better (above median) food-hygiene practices. Nutritional status of children, defined anthropometrically, was measured through height and weight.ResultsAmong the individual food-hygiene practices, children living in a house with less dirty sewage had a significantly lower diarrhea prevalence compared to those who did not [adjusted odds ratio (OR) 0.16, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.03-0.73]. The overall food-hygiene practice score was not significantly associated with diarrhea in the total group, but it was in children aged < 2 years (adjusted OR 4.55, 95% CI = 1.08-19.1).ConclusionsOverall poor mother’s food-hygiene practices did not contribute to the occurrence of diarrhea in Indonesian children. However, among children < 2 years from low socioeconomic urban areas they were associated with more diarrhea.

Childhood Housing and Adult Earnings: A Between-Siblings Analysis of Housing Vouchers and Public Housing

Research on effects of living in voucher-assisted and public housing to date has largely focused on short-term outcomes, while data limitations and challenges of identification have been an obstacle to conclusive results. In contrast, this paper assesses effects of children’s housing on their later employment and earnings, uses national longitudinal data, and makes use of withinhousehold variation to mitigate selection issues. We combine several national datasets on housing assistance, teenagers and their households, and the subsequent earnings and employment outcomes, such that we are able to follow1.8 million children aged 13-18 in 2000 in over 800,000 households within many different assisted and unassisted housing settings, controlling for neighborhood conditions, and examine their labor market outcomes for the 2008-2010 period. By focusing on within-family variation in subsidy treatment, we remove a substantial source of unobserved heterogeneity affecting both a child’s selection into housing and their later outcomes. OLS estimates show a substantial negative effect of housing subsidies on earnings and employment outcomes. However, using within-household variation to control for selection issues attenuates these effects, and results in positive effects for some demographic groups. The large sample size allows us to study to what extent results vary by gender and race/ethnicity, and we find strong evidence of heterogeneous effects. Children in Black households who have lived in voucher-supported housing and public housing often benefit in terms of positive subsequent economic outcomes. Girls raised in Black households derive a considerable positive effect on later earnings from having lived in voucher-supported housing, and a somewhat lesser effect from having lived in public housing. Boys raised in Black households fare relatively worse than girls; in contrast, girls in White households tend to have relatively worse outcomes than boys.

A Study on a state of child's housing life and smaller from the viewpoint of forms of care

A Study on a state of child's housing life and smaller from the viewpoint of forms of care

Children's Mental Health in the Area Affected by the Hebei Spirit Oil Spill Accident

ObjectivesChildren are one of the most vulnerable populations to the impact of disasters. We aimed to examine children's mental health in the area affected by the Hebei Spirit oil spill accident on December 7, 2007.MethodsA cross-sectional questionnaire survey was conducted using the Korean versions of the Children's Depression Inventory and State Anxiety Inventory for Children on 1,362 children attending elementary schools in the affected area. The information on distances between the nearest contaminated coastline to the child's residential house or attending school were obtained using a web-based map by inputting two address points. The symptom risks of depression and state anxiety were estimated by multiple logistic regression analyses adjusted for age, gender, and other covariates.ResultsChildren with the closest distance (in the fourth quartile) to the school from the contaminated coastline showed a significantly higher symptom risk of depression compared to those with the farthest distance (first quartile)(odds ratio, 2.73; 95% confidence interval, 1.40-5.33), while there was no significant association between anxiety symptoms and distance.ConclusionsChildren, a vulnerable population for mental health impact by the oil spill accident, should be included in mental health programs in the community along with their family as victims of the disaster.

Baby and Infant Policy in Strusbourg France A Report on The House of Children

Baby and Infant Policy in Strusbourg France A Report on The House of Children

One Facility's Experience in Reframing Nonfeeding into a Comprehensive Palliative Care Model

In Western culture, feeding is viewed as symbolic of life, and nonfeeding at the end of life is often considered unacceptable. This sentiment is magnified for infants. Reframing nonfeeding into comprehensive care can be achieved by anticipatory guidance, which can make the experience of infant death meaningful for parents. Since 2004, the George Mark Children's House, an inpatient pediatric palliative care center, has offered this model of care and supported families with challenging clinical experiences. A case study is provided.

Early Childhood Housing Instability and School Readiness

This study assesses the consequences of housing instability during the first 5years of a child's life for a host of school readiness outcomes. Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n=2,810), this study examines the relation between multiple moves and children's language and literacy and behavior problems at age 5. The moderating role of poverty is further tested in this relation. The findings show that moving three or more times in a child's first 5years is significantly associated with increases in attention problems, and internalizing and externalizing behavior, but only among poor children.

Gender Relations and Effect of Credit Availability on Household Expenditure: Evidence from Rural Bangladesh

AbstractTo improve the well‐being of individuals, development policies not only have to take into account how resources are allocated within the family or household but also look at the impact of this resource allocation on individuals. The objective of this article is to understand how intrahousehold dynamics (e.g., variations in household bargaining behaviors) lead to differences in outcomes of specific interest (e.g., food and non‐food expenditure). The household bargaining model is used to study the effects of credit, both formal and informal, on consumption choices. The focus is on the household expenditure patterns and participation in the credit market is taken as the measure of bargaining between the head and the spouse. This article uses the International Food Policy Research Institute's Food Management and Research Support Project (IFPRI‐FMRSP) household survey of Bangladesh for the years 1998–99. OLS is used to estimate the food share and personal care share equations, and Tobit models are used to estimate the 10 other non‐food budget shares. Our results indicated that more men compared to women participate in the credit market. Amount of credit taken by the male household head negatively affects food expenditure and positively affects the share spent on adult goods. The negative effect on food expenditure has policy implications related to nutritional intake and educational attainment of children in the household. Women's use of credit has a positive impact on the expense of children's goods, durable goods, education, and housing. The results show that resources in the hands of women have implications for improvement in child outcomes, especially educational outcomes.

Oddfellow's Orphanage by E.W. Martin

Martin, Emily Winfield. Oddfellow's Orphanage. New York: Random House Children’s Books, 2012. Print. Emily Winfield Martin crafts a whimsical, imaginative read in her debut novel, Oddfellow’s Orphanage, that is sure to delight readers of all ages. As Delia, the newest member of the Oddfellow’s Orphanage quickly discovers, the members living at the orphanage are anything but ordinary. Under the guidance of Headmaster Oddfellow Bluebeard, her new family includes an onion-headed boy, a blue tattooed girl, a child-sized hedgehog, and a family of three dancing bears. While Delia is unable to speak and must instead write to communicate, she is immediately accepted into her new family. The oddities and peculiarities of each of the children residing at the orphanage are matched in the school classes they take, including Professor Flockheart’s F. T. Studies (fairy tales and folktales) and Professor Silas’ cryptozoology class. In this rather unorthodox orphanage, the school year passes with one quirky adventure after another. Each bizarre yet entertaining escapade allows the author to develop each character’s personality as well as friendships between the children, endearing the reader to each of the orphans. With Haircut Day, a grand picnic, a fieldtrip to see the Great Comet and an expedition to locate lake M.O.N.S.T.E.R.S. (Mysterious or Nonexistent Subjects Thoroughly Examined Really Scientifically), nothing is ever ordinary at Oddfellow’s Orphanage. While comical and curious, the story, at times, appears to unfold in isolated vignettes, with each chapter a discrete event, making for less-than-smooth plot continuity. Quite impressively, the author manages to pepper the story with an appropriate amount of bizarre and peculiar elements, never once does the plot appear to be overly outlandish. While the writing itself is sweet and simple with perfectly proportioned chapters, lending itself to a fantastic first reader or a read-aloud story, it is Martin’s illustrations that accentuate the writing and highlight the whimsy found within the pages. The soft, sepia-coloured pencil drawings that appear on nearly every page give off a vintage aesthetic and confer just the right amount of detail to the story, allowing the reader to invent and imagine the rest. With overarching themes of acceptance and perseverance, both girls and boys will fall in love with the charming and unique characters and the impressive illustrations. Highly recommended for elementary school libraries as well as public libraries. Highly recommended: 4 out of 4 starsReviewer: Nicole Dalmer Nicole Dalmer is a Public Services Librarian at H.T. Coutts Education &amp; Physical Education Library at the University of Alberta. She is interested in health literacy, pinball, and finding the perfect cup of coffee to accompany a good read.

The Predictive Value of Self-Report Questions in a Clinical Decision Rule for Pediatric Lead Poisoning Screening

We derived a clinical decision rule for determining which young children need testing for lead poisoning. We developed an equation that combines lead exposure self-report questions with the child's census-block housing and socioeconomic characteristics, personal demographic characteristics, and Medicaid status. This equation better predicts elevated blood lead level (EBLL) than one using ZIP code and Medicaid status. A survey regarding potential lead exposure was administered from October 2001 to January 2003 to Michigan parents at pediatric clinics (n=3,396). These self-report survey data were linked to a statewide clinical registry of blood lead level (BLL) tests. Sensitivity and specificity were calculated and then used to estimate the cost-effectiveness of the equation. The census-block group prediction equation explained 18.1% of the variance in BLLs. Replacing block group characteristics with the self-report questions and dichotomized ZIP code risk explained only 12.6% of the variance. Adding three self-report questions to the census-block group model increased the variance explained to 19.9% and increased specificity with no loss in sensitivity in detecting EBLLs of ≥ 10 micrograms per deciliter. Relying solely on self-reports of lead exposure predicted BLL less effectively than the block group model. However, adding three of 13 self-report questions to our clinical decision rule significantly improved prediction of which children require a BLL test. Using the equation as the clinical decision rule would annually eliminate more than 7,200 unnecessary tests in Michigan and save more than $220,000.

The role of supportive housing in homeless children's well-being: An investigation of child welfare and educational outcomes

Research has demonstrated that homeless children have disproportionate negative academic experiences, including absenteeism, high rates of mobility, grade repetition, and the need for special education services, which may all contribute to poor academic performance. Homeless children are also more exposed to violence and social isolation due to their often dangerous living environments, past histories of victimization, and trauma experienced by their mothers. The main purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of family supportive housing service receipt on children's well-being, including the academic functioning and child protection involvement of homeless children. A total of 183 children's supportive housing records were sequentially linked to data from the Minnesota Departments of Education and Human Services, including the Minnesota Automated Reporting Student System, MCA-II database, and Social Services Information System through Minn-LInK. Generalized Estimating Equation analysis was implemented to examine the three-year longitudinal role of supportive housing for homeless children's educational and child protection outcomes. Significantly positive effects of recipients of supportive housing services were found in school mobility, school attendance, and math achievement. The proportion of children with child protection involvement for the supportive housing group sharply decreased over time. Recommendations for policy and future research are made; study limitations are addressed.

유아 어머니의 양육스트레스, 분노, 분노표현 유형의 관계

본 연구는 유아 어머니의 양육스트레스, 분노, 분노표현 유형 정도를 파악하고 분노표현 유형에 영향을 미치는 변인을 알아보기 위한 서술적 조사연구이다. K시의 유치원과 어린이 집에 재원하고 있는 3-6세 아동의 어머니 205명을 대상으로 설문지를 배부하여 자료 수집을 실시하였다. 자료 분석은 SPSS 19.0 통계 program을 이용하여 실수, 백분율, 평균, 표준편차, t-test, ANOVA, 상관관계, 다중회귀분석을 실시하였다. 본 연구결과 양육스트레스의 평균 점수는 2.32점이었고, 상태분노 1.36점, 특성분노 1.85점으로 나타났다. 분노표현 유형의 하위척도인 분노표출의 평균 점수는 1.84점이었고, 분노억제 1.75점, 분노조절 2.31점으로 나타났다. 양육스트레스는 상태분노, 특성분노, 분노표출, 분노억제와 정적상관관계를 보였고 분노조절은 부적상관관계를 보였다. 상태분노는 특성분노, 분노표출, 분노억제와 정적상관관계, 분노조절은 부적상관관계를 보였다. 특성분노는 분노표출, 분노억제와 정적상관관계, 분노조절과 부적상관관계를 보였다. 분노표출은 분노억제와 정적상관관계이고 분노조절과 부적상관관계를 보였다. 분노표현 유형에 영향을 미치는 요인을 확인하기 위해 회귀분석을 실시한 결과 양육스트레스, 상태분노, 특성분노가 분노표현 유형에 유의하게 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 따라서 자녀양육에 필요한 정보와 기술 제공뿐 만 아니라 어머니의 분노를 조절하고 양육스트레스를 감소시킬 수 있는 부모교육프로그램의 개발이 필요하다. The purpose of this study was to examine the relations between infant's mothers parenting stress, anger and anger expression patterns: The data for this study was collected from 205 among the 3 to 6 years old infant's mothers who attend to the three kindergartens and seven children's house. The instruments used for this study were a self-report questionnaire, PSI(Parenting Stress Index Short Form by Abidin), Anger and Anger-expression patterns. Regression analysis was the statistical method used for data analysis. Results: There were significant positive correlations in the infant's mothers parenting stress, state-trait anger and anger out/in. The results of multiple regression analysis indicated that infant's mothers parenting stress, state and trait anger were significant variables predicting mother's anger expression patterns. Conclusion: This study suggests that the parental education program are necessary which a infant's mother can express positively about anger and decrease parenting stress.

Analysis of House Dust and Children?s Hair for Pesticides: A Comparison of Markers of Ongoing Pesticide Exposure in Children

The long term study of the adverse effects of pesticides on child neuro development requires monitoring not only of initial, but ongoing pesticide exposure. Our aim was to compare house dust and children's hair as environmental and biological markers of ongoing pesticide exposure in children. In a continuing NIH study on the adverse effects of prenatal pesticide exposure on child neurodevelopment, ongoing pesticide exposure after birth was measured in swept house dust and hair in the children at 4 years of age for propoxur and pyrethroids (transfluthrin, bioallethrin, cyfluthrin and cypermethrin) by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. The prevalence and concentration of pesticides in the two matrices were compared. Prevalence of propoxur was higher in hair compared to house dust (p<0.001) whereas prevalence of the pyrethroids was higher (p<0.001) in house dust. The overall concentrations of the pyrethroids were also higher (p<0.007) in house dust compared to hair. There was a significant (p<0.001) correlation between dust and hair for bioallethrin and cypermethrin. Ongoing exposure of children to environmental pesticides is sensitively detected by analysis of children's hair and house dust. However, prevalence of propoxur was higher in hair compared to swept house dust, but the opposite was found for the pyrethroids. Thus, both matrices should be analyzed. There was a significant (p<0.001) correlation between house dust and hair for bioallethrin and cypermethrin.

The influence of childhood IQ and education on social mobility in the Newcastle Thousand Families birth cohort

BackgroundIt has been suggested that social, educational, cultural and physical factors in childhood and early adulthood may influence the chances and direction of social mobility, the movement of an individual between social classes over his/her life-course. This study examined the association of such factors with intra-generational and inter-generational social mobility within the Newcastle Thousand Families 1947 birth cohort.MethodsMultivariable logistic regression was used to examine the potential association of sex, housing conditions at age 5 years, childhood IQ, achieved education level, adult height and adverse events in early childhood with upward and downward social mobility.ResultsChildhood IQ and achieved education level were significantly and independently associated with upward mobility between the ages of 5 and 49-51 years. Only education was significantly associated (positively) with upward social mobility between 5 and 25 years, and only childhood IQ (again positively) with upward social mobility between 25 and 49-51 years. Childhood IQ was significantly negatively associated with downward social mobility. Adult height, childhood housing conditions, adverse events in childhood and sex were not significant determinants of upward or downward social mobility in this cohort.ConclusionsAs upward social mobility has been associated with better health as well as more general benefits to society, supportive measures to improve childhood circumstances that could result in increased IQ and educational attainment may have long-term population health and wellbeing benefits.

Private Sector housing conditions: influencing health and wellbeing across the generations

The private housing sector presents some of the worst housing conditions and most vulnerable occupants. Dr Jill Stewart and Anneyce Knight from the University of Greenwich look at interventions to assist those seeking evidence to contribute to health promotion activities The private housing sector (owner occupied and privately rented) comprises the majority of UK tenure and presents some of the worst housing conditions and most vulnerable occupants. Appropriate interventions can be highly effective in maintaining the physical, mental/emotional health and wellbeing of occupants and it is increasingly important to use evidence based practice in enhancing housing conditions through local plans and commissioning priorities.1,2 Poor housing in England costs over £600 million a year and the total cost to society may exceed £1.5 billion per year, providing compelling evidence for intervention.3 Good strategic approaches can help promote financial, social and environmental benefits of private sector housing renewal with a positive impact on health and wellbeing. 4 For example, improving housing can improve public health, children's education, older people's sense of security and general wellbeing as well as community sustainability. As funding is cut, it is increasingly important for local authorities and their partners to demonstrate cost effectiveness, potential for health and wellbeing improvement and likely health gain of interventions so that both social and private sector housing receive their fair share of resources. Prioritising children's housing conditions is important in order to address health inequality and bring about physical and mental health/wellbeing benefits.1,5 Children born into decent housing and environments are more likely to enjoy and maintain positive mental health and resilience to illness, including opportunities for quality social interaction. However, many families experience the constant threat of eviction; exposure to other residents with mental health, drug and alcohol problems; damp housing giving rise to asthma and related respiratory disease; lack of freedom to play in safety; and the risk of missing out on regular health care or education for frequent movers.6 Overcrowding is of particular importance in leading to problems in physical and social development as well as reduced educational attainment.7 At the opposite end of the spectrum, as people are living longer their housing needs and their ability to address these needs changes.8 One irony in the owner occupied sector is that owners may have a major capital resource, but have little to spend day to day. They may be anxious and lack understanding of equity release schemes or home loans to fund housing maintenance, repair, adaptations or improvements as well as changing social care needs. Whilst arguably those in the social housing sector have their housing and social needs met to some extent, many private sector residents risk missing out on support regimes due to poverty, social isolation and other difficulties as they 'age in place'. Older people are most likely to occupy poor housing and require home care although many wish to remain independently in their own homes for as long as possible. As the numbers reaching older age increases, so does the number of those living with progressive conditions such as dementia which in turn leads to associated higher risks of home accidents, as well as declining living environment through reduced maintenance. As housing conditions deteriorate around an ageing occupier(s), it is can also be challenging to 'design in' features that could help improve quality of life and wellbeing for occupiers and their carers, such as space for visitors, gas caps, lower windows for those who are less mobile or bed-ridden, colour coding to help avoid confusion and there is a need for new and emerging models of housing and health care services for older people.9 Fuel poverty in private sector housing has proven particularly challenging to address, due in part to this housing sector generally being older and more disparate, and not enjoying the benefits of large scale capital investment as social housing. …

Learning from adult services: expert patients to expert parents

A project funded under DH £30 million for children's palliative care.IntroductionThe Expert Parents project was based on the adult expert patients programme to give self-confidence to adult patients to take...

Go, Dog, Go! by P. D. Eastman

Eastman, P D. Go, Dog, Go! New York: Random House Children’s Books, 2011. Print. This classic children’s book by P.D. Eastman has been re-released in 2011 in a special 50th Anniversary Party edition format, complete with a shiny and colourful foil-like cover. Written exclusively for children just learning how to read, this story takes the reader on a whimsical and light-hearted course through colours, numbers, time, and more. Dogs in all shapes, sizes, and colours are doing multiple actions on various forms of vehicles, and a large number of them are on their way to an unnamed location, which we find out at the end is a party atop a tree. Kids can explore movement and direction with lines like “The blue dog is in. The red dog is out.” The book also teaches prepositions and proximity to other objects with declarations such as “Two dogs in a house on a boat in the water. A dog over the water. A dog under the water.” The book consists of large print and sentences being broken down into 2-3 words per line: “Three dogs at a party on a boat at night.” This approach makes the book much less intimidating for beginning readers, and allows them to explore the book at an appropriate pace. The words are simple and easier for pronunciation, so children trying to read along with parents will likely not be frustrated by this book. The words are often repeated so the reader will actually recognize phrases and terms previously used in the book, and “Go, dog. Go!” is an amusing repeated chant used to encourage the dogs on their journey. Along with this, colourful and quirky drawings accompany each of the phrases, allowing kids to understand the context better through visual reinforcement. Aside from being a great tool for teaching, this book is also a humorous tale for the reader. Several times throughout the book, one dog wearing a simple hat asks another dog whether or not he likes it. He bluntly replies, “I do not like that hat,” and the two part ways. This happens several more times with several more plain hats, and each time the dog replies “I do not like that hat.” At the large dog party at the end of the book, the first dog is wearing an over-the-top, outlandish party hat that is borderline ridiculous; it is at this time that the second dog agrees that it is a great hat, and the two ride off into the sunset together. Overall, this book is great for preschool and beginning readers, and would also be an excellent read-along book for parents to share with their toddlers as part of an early literacy program. The variety of words and pictures are exciting for the new reader, and will prove to be an enjoyable first reading experience. This book has a unique and timeless appeal; it has been a popular go-to book for beginning literacy for the past 50 years and will continue to enchant young readers well into the future.Highly-recommended: 4 out of 4 stars Reviewer: Diana KetoDiana is originally from the Washington, D.C. area, where she worked for several years at a government library. She received her MLIS in 2009 and works at University of Alberta as a Public Services Librarian in the Humanities and Social Sciences Library.

Commentary on “Pediatric Physical Therapists' Use of Support Walkers for Children With Disabilities

“How could I apply this information?” This article provides valuable information about the current practice of experienced pediatric physical therapists related to the use of support walkers (SWs). Respondents perceived that SWs allow children with a variety of diagnoses who are unable to walk independently to achieve an upright position and increase participation with peers. Most respondents recommended 2 specific walkers and a minimum of 9 sessions for a child to learn to move the SW. In addition, respondents indicated that about 50% of children will progress to a handheld walker within 1 year. This information is helpful in responding to families about timeframes for learning to use an SW and about prognosis for a less supportive type of device. Recommendation for a particular SW depended on the child's needs, the clinical picture, and the family situation, and these parameters might direct a practitioner in developing evaluation criteria. The increased participation opportunities and perceived physiological benefits could be useful for payment purposes. The home is the second most frequent setting for the use of an SW, but every household may not have adequate space. Therapists may be able to encourage schools and families to use the SW to attempt to meet the current physical activity recommendations for children for 60 minutes per day1 and to avoid a decreased physical exercise seen in some children with developmental impairments.2 “What should I be mindful about in applying this information?” Readers should be mindful that the results describe current practice rather than “best practice” determined by objective outcome measures. The experience of the respondents may have influenced the perceived ease of adjustability of specific SWs. Evidence was cited as a top factor in selecting an SW, but little evidence exists for using SWs, or for specific types of SWs. Respondents cited guidelines for standing to affect bone mineral density, but children using SWs may be unable to sustain activity for a full 60 minutes. Readers must consider whether respondents were referring to documented records of clients or were basing responses on general practice perceptions. The article demonstrates the value of SWs and emphasizes the need for more research on the use of SWs and on the “dose” required to produce physiological effects. Venita Lovelace-Chandler, PT, PhD, PCS Texas Woman's University, Dallas, Texas Diana Early, PT, MS, PCS Baylor Our Children's House, Dallas, Texas

Déguisements, invisibilité et disqualification des gardes d'enfants en Suisse Romande aujourd'hui

Various factors oblige today's parents to entrust their children to a child‐care worker (CCW), providing services in the domestic sphere, either at the child's parental house or at the day‐care worker's (DCW's) own home. Taking this into account, this paper examines job offers and applications for DCWs published in a regional Swiss newspaper as well as other job offers and applications published on a website called bestnounou.ch. The parents often tend to use a variety of terms, which do not point to the child‐caring or rearing activity itself, but rather emphasise sociological characteristics of the CCW (age, gender, civil status), requesting, for example, a “lady”, a “grandmother”, a “student”. Thereby, the parents present the child‐care work as: (1) a secondary and temporary activity in relation to another major stable activity (motherhood, apprenticeship, retirement); and (2) an activity that does not require professional skills but inborn aptitudes. Moreover, employers use as synonyms distinctive terms, which refer to various categories of CCW and domestic workers, whose schedules of conditions and salaries are regulated and differ. The parents' inclination to use terms designating the most precarious and underpaid CCW underscores the importance of child‐care in the domestic sphere. It leads also to a public image of child‐care workers as being a fragmented, unstable, little qualified and economically inconsistent workforce, in contrast to the stable and structural need for their specific services, allowing parents to face their familial and professional responsibilities.

A Child's House: Social Memory, Identity, and the Construction of Childhood in Early Postclassic Mexican Households

Despite the recent attention given to the archaeology of childhood, households continue to be treated by archaeologists as the product of adult behavior and activities. Yet children shaped the decisions and motivations of adults and influenced the structure and organization of daily activities and household space. Further, children's material culture serves to both create and disrupt social norms and daily life, making children essential to understanding broader mechanisms of change and continuity. Thus, archaeologists should reconceptualize houses as places of children. This research brings together multiple lines of evidence from the Early Postclassic site of Xaltocan, Mexico, including ethnohistory, burials, and figurines to reconstruct the social roles and identities of children and to problematize our understanding of households. I argue that thinking of houses as places of children enables us to see that children were essential to daily practice, the construction and transmission of social identity, and household economic success.